

Journal of Health and Medical Sciences
ISSN 2622-7258







Published: 06 November 2020
Schizophrenia: Epidemiology, Causes, Neurobiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment
Kevin Volkan
California State University Channel Islands (USA), Community Memorial Health System (USA)

Download Full-Text Pdf

10.31014/aior.1994.03.04.143
Pages: 487-521
Keywords: Schizophrenia, Autoimmunity, Brain Structure, Antipsychotic Medication, Neuromodulation, Psychotherapy
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness that has devastating consequences for those who suffer from the disorder. The epidemiology of schizophrenia indicates that it occurs relatively often, in many different contexts, and in conjunction with other disorders, decreasing quality of life and causing premature death. There has been an enormous amount of research into the causes of schizophrenia and there is now have a much better understanding of the genetic, environmental, and psychological factors that contribute to the disease. While there are numerous ways to understand and conceptualize schizophrenia, a unified picture of the neurobiology, changes in brain structure, cognitive and social-cognitive impairments related to the disorder has yet to emerge. Convulsive therapies and psychosurgery were used unsuccessfully, indiscriminately and without scientific validation in the past to treat schizophrenia. Medical advances including advanced imaging technology have now provided the ability to perform specifically focused neuromodulation and psychosurgery in severe and treatment resistant cases of schizophrenia. While still at a preliminary stage, these approaches have the potential to yield effective treatments in the future. For the last 70 years antipsychotic medication has become the prevailing treatment for schizophrenia. However, many people suffering from the disorder have trouble with side-effects and adhering to a regimen of antipsychotic medication. Newer pharmacological agents are being developed and include not only novel antipsychotic drugs, but anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating agents as well. These new agents, used either alone or in combination, have the potential to improve outcomes for people suffering from schizophrenia. Nevertheless, conclusively better pharmacotherapies will likely not arise until there is better understanding of the pathophysiology underlying schizophrenia. After the development of antipsychotic medication, psychotherapeutic methods for treating schizophrenia fell out of favor, but there is currently some reversal of this trend. The use of newer psychotherapies and modified forms of older therapeutic treatments are not only targeting the symptoms of schizophrenia but are also now focusing on recovery from the disorder. These newer approaches as well as efforts at preventing schizophrenia show promise in reducing the suffering caused by this disease.
References
Adams, D. D., Knight, J. G., & Ebringer, A. (2012). The autoimmune model of schizophrenia. ISRN Psychiatry, 2012, 758072.
Agarwal, V., Abhijnhan, A., & Raviraj, P. (2007). Ayurvedic medicine for schizophrenia. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 4, CD006867.
Agbeli, M. O. (2020). Reducing antipsychotic medication use in long-term care settings (2020-04052-126; Issues 5-A). ProQuest Information & Learning.
Akhtar, S., & Volkan, V. D. (2005). Mental zoo: Animals in the human mind and its pathology. International Universities Press.
Albert, N., Randers, L., Allott, K., Jensen, H. D., Melau, M., Hjorthøj, C., & Nordentoft, M. (2019). Cognitive functioning following discontinuation of antipsychotic medication A naturalistic sub-group analysis from the OPUS II trial. Psychological Medicine, 49(7), 1138–1147.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition: DSM-5 (5 edition). American Psychiatric Publishing.
Angyal, A. (1950). The psychodynamic process of illness and recovery in a case of catatonic schizophrenia. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 13, 149–165.
Arnaiz, A., Zumárraga, M., Díez-Altuna, I., Uriarte, J. J., Moro, J., & Pérez-Ansorena, M. A. (2011). Oral health and the symptoms of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 188(1), 24–28.
Ashcroft, K., Kingdon, D. G., & Chadwick, P. (2012). Persecutory delusions and childhood emotional abuse in people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, 4(2), 168–171.
Azrin, S. T., Goldstein, A. B., & Heinssen, R. K. (2015). Early intervention for psychosis: The Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode project. Psychiatric Annals, 45(11), 548–553.
B, S., & Tk, C. (2014). Role of C-reactive protein in schizophrenia: An overview. Psychiatry Research, 216(2), 277–285.
Barkan, T., Peled, A., Modai, I., Barak, P., Weizman, A., & Rehavi, M. (2006). Serotonin transporter characteristics in lymphocytes and platelets of male aggressive schizophrenia patients compared to non-aggressive schizophrenia patients. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 16(8), 572–579.
Barrowclough, C., Haddock, G., Lobban, F., Jones, S., Siddle, R., Roberts, C., & Gregg, L. (2006). Group cognitive-behavioural therapy for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189(6), 527–532.
Baumeister, A. A., & Francis, J. L. (2002). Historical development of the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 11(3), 265–277.
Beraki, S., Aronsson, F., Karlsson, H., Ögren, S. O., & Kristensson, K. (2005). Influenza A virus infection causes alterations in expression of synaptic regulatory genes combined with changes in cognitive and emotional behaviors in mice. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(3), 299–308.
Bhugra, D. (2000). Migration and schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 68–73.
Bonnigal-Katz, D. (2019). Psychosis Therapy Project: A psychoanalytic project in the community. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 35(4), 586–589.
Boydell, J., Van Os, J., Lambri, M., Castle, D., Allardyce, J., McCreadie, R. G., & Murray, R. M. (2003). Incidence of schizophrenia in south-east London between 1965 and 1997. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182(1), 45–49.
Brakoulias, V., Starcevic, V., Albert, U., Arumugham, S. S., Bailey, B. E., Belloch, A., Borda, T., Dell’Osso, L., Elias, J. A., Falkenstein, M. J., Ferrao, Y. A., Fontenelle, L. F., Jelinek, L., Kalogeraki, L., Kay, B., Laurito, L. D., Lochner, C., Maina, G., Marazziti, D., … Fineberg, N. A. (2019). Treatments used for obsessive-compulsive disorder-An international perspective. Human Psychopharmacology, 34(1), e2686.
Brambilla, P., & Tansella, M. (2007). Can neuroimaging studies help us in understanding the biological causes of schizophrenia? International Review of Psychiatry, 19(4), 313–314.
Braslow, J. T. (1999). History and evidence-based medicine: Lessons from the history of somatic treatments from the 1900s to the 1950s. Mental Health Services Research, 1(4), 231–240.
Bray, I., Waraich, P., Jones, W., Slater, S., Goldner, E. M., & Somers, J. (2006). Increase in schizophrenia incidence rates: Findings in a Canadian cohort born 1975-1985. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(8), 611–618.
Bresnahan, M., Menezes, P., Varma, V., & Susser, E. (2003). Geographical variation in incidence, course and outcome of schizophrenia: A comparison of developing and developed countries. The Epidemiology of Schizophrenia., 18–33.
Brown, A. S., & McGrath, J. J. (2011). The Prevention of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(2), 257–261.
Brown, A. S., & Patterson, P. H. (2011). Maternal Infection and Schizophrenia: Implications for Prevention. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(2), 284–290.
Brown, A. S., Schaefer, C. A., Quesenberry, C. P. Jr., Shen, L., & Susser, E. S. (2006). No evidence of relation between maternal exposure to herpes simplex virus type 2 and risk of schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(12), 2178–2180.
Brown, S., Inskip, H., & Barraclough, B. (2000). Causes of the excess mortality of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 212–217.
Buckley, L., & Pettit, T. (2007). Supportive therapy for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(4), 859–860.
Buka, S. L., Cannon, T. D., Torrey, E. F., & Yolken, R. H. (2008). Maternal exposure to herpes simplex virus and risk of psychosis among adult offspring. Biological Psychiatry, 63(8), 809–815.
Burns, J. (2007). The Descent of Madness: Evolutionary Origins of Psychosis and the Social Brain (1 edition). Routledge.
Butler, P. D., Susser, E. S., Brown, A. S., Kaufmann, C. A., & Gorman, J. M. (1994). Prenatal nutritional deprivation as a risk factor in schizophrenia: Preclinical evidence. Neuropsychopharmacology, 11(4), 227–235.
Byrne, M., Agerbo, E., Bennedsen, B., Eaton, W. W., & Mortensen, P. B. (2007). Obstetric conditions and risk of first admission with schizophrenia: A Danish national register based study. Schizophrenia Research, 97(1), 51–59.
Capasso, R. M., Lineberry, T. W., Bostwick, J. M., Decker, P. A., & St. Sauver, J. (2008). Mortality in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: An Olmsted County, Minnesota cohort: 1950-2005. Schizophrenia Research, 98(1), 287–294.
Caruso, J. P., & Sheehan, J. P. (2017). Psychosurgery, ethics, and media: A history of Walter Freeman and the lobotomy. Neurosurgical Focus, 43(3), E6.
Casey, D. E., Haupt, D. W., Newcomer, J. W., Henderson, D. C., Sernyak, M. J., Davidson, M., Lindenmayer, J.-P., Manoukian, S. V., Banerji, M. A., Lebovitz, H. E., & Hennekens, C. H. (2004). Antipsychotic-lnduced Weight Gain and Metabolic Abnormalities: Implications for Increased Mortality in Patients with Schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 4–18.
Castle, D. J., & Morgan, V. (2008). Epidemiology. Clinical Handbook of Schizophrenia., 14–24.
Chan, S. K. W., Hui, C. L. M., Chang, W. C., Lee, E. H. M., & Chen, E. Y. H. (2019). Ten-year follow up of patients with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder from an early intervention service: Predictors of clinical remission and functional recovery. Schizophrenia Research, 204, 65–71.
Chaudhry, I. B., Husain, N., ur Rahman, R., Husain, M. O., Hamirani, M. M., Kazmi, A., Baig, S., Haddad, P. M., Buch, M. H., Qureshi, I., Mehmood, N., Kiran, T., Fu, B., Afsar, S., & Deakin, B. (2015). A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled 12- week feasibility trial of methotrexate added to treatment as usual in early schizophrenia: Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials, 16, 9.
Cheniaux, E., Landeira-Fernandez, J., Telles, L. L., Lessa, J. L. M., Dias, A., Duncan, T., & Versiani, M. (2008). Does schizoaffective disorder really exist? A systematic review of the studies that compared schizoaffective disorder with schizophrenia or mood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 106(3), 209–217.
Chiu, V. W., Ree, M., Janca, A., Iyyalol, R., Dragovic, M., & Waters, F. (2018). Sleep profiles and CBT-I response in schizophrenia and related psychoses. Psychiatry Research, 268, 279–287.
Chwastiak, L. A., & Tek, C. (2009). The unchanging mortality gap for people with schizophrenia. The Lancet, 374(9690), 590–592.
Cowan, H. R. (2020). Is schizophrenia research relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic? Schizophrenia Research.
Cullen, A. E., Holmes, S., Pollak, T. A., Blackman, G., Joyce, D. W., Kempton, M. J., Murray, R. M., McGuire, P., & Mondelli, V. (2019). Associations Between Non-neurological Autoimmune Disorders and Psychosis: A Meta-analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 85(1), 35–48.
Dalman, C., Allebeck, P., Gunnell, D., Harrison, G., Kristensson, K., Lewis, G., Lofving, S., Rasmussen, F., Wicks, S., & Karlsson, H. (2008). Infections in the CNS during childhood and the risk of subsequent psychotic illness: A cohort study of more than one million Swedish subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(1), 59–65.
D’Astous, M., Cottin, S., Roy, M., Picard, C., & Cantin, L. (2013). Bilateral stereotactic anterior capsulotomy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Long-term follow-up. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 84(11), 1208–1213.
Davenport, S., Hobson, R., & Margison, F. (2000). Treatment development in psychodynamic-interpersonal psychotherapy (Hobson’s ’Conversational Model’) for chronic treatment resistant schizophrenia: Two single case studies. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 16(3), 287–302.
Davis, J. M., & Leucht, S. (2008). Has research informed us on the practical drug treatment of schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(3), 403–405.
De Luca, V., Zai, G., Tharmalingam, S., de Bartolomeis, A., Wong, G., & Kennedy, J. L. (2006). Association study between the novel functional polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene and suicidal behaviour in schizophrenia. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 16(4), 268–271.
De Masi, F. (2020). Psychosis and analytic therapy: A complex relationship. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 101(1), 152–168.
Dean, B., Hussain, T., Scarr, E., Pavey, G., & Copolov, D. L. (2001). Extended treatment with typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs: Differential effects on the densities of dopamine D-sub-2-like and GABA-sub(A) receptors in rat striatum. Life Sciences, 69(11), 1257–1268.
Dean, B., Pavey, G., Thomas, D., & Scarr, E. (2006). Cortical serotonin-sub(7, 1D) and -sub(1F) receptors: Effects of schizophrenia, suicide and antipsychotic drug treatment. Schizophrenia Research, 88(1), 265–274.
Dean, K., Bramon, E., & Murray, R. M. (2003). The causes of schizophrenia: Neurodevelopment and other risk factors. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 9(6), 442–454.
Dickerson, F., Boronow, J., Stallings, C., Origoni, A., & Yolken, R. (2007). Toxoplasma gondii in individuals with schizophrenia: Association with clinical and demographic factors and with mortality. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(3), 737–740.
Dickerson, F., Kirkpatrick, B., Boronow, J., Stallings, C., Origoni, A., & Yolken, R. (2006). Deficit schizophrenia: Association with serum antibodies to cytomegalovirus. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32(2), 396–400.
Dickerson, F., Severance, E., & Yolken, R. (2017). The microbiome, immunity, and schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 62, 46–52.
Dickson, H., Hedges, E. P., Ma, S. Y., Cullen, A. E., MacCabe, J. H., Kempton, M. J., Downs, J., & Laurens, K. R. (2020). Academic achievement and schizophrenia: A systematic meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine.
Dion, G. L., & Dellario, D. (1988). Symptom subtypes in persons institutionalized with schizophrenia: Comparison of demographics, outcome and functional skills. Rehabilitation Psychology, 33(2), 95–104.
Divac, N., Prostran, M., Jakovcevski, I., & Cerovac, N. (2014). Second-generation antipsychotics and extrapyramidal adverse effects. BioMed Research International, 2014, 656370.
dosReis, S., Johnson, E., Steinwachs, D., Rohde, C., Skinner, E. A., Fahey, M., & Lehman, A. F. (2008). Antipsychotic treatment patterns and hospitalizations among adults with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 101(1), 304–311.
Downing, D. L., & Mills, J. (2018). Outpatient Treatment of Psychosis: Psychodynamic Approaches to Evidence-Based Practice. Routledge.
Dully, H., & Fleming, C. (2007). My Lobotomy. Crown.
Dykxhoorn, J., Hollander, A.-C., Lewis, G., Magnusson, C., Dalman, C., & Kirkbride, J. B. (2019). Risk of schizophrenia, schizoaffective, and bipolar disorders by migrant status, region of origin, and age-at-migration: A national cohort study of 18 million people. Psychological Medicine, 49(14), 2354–2363.
Eecke, W. V. (2019). How Does Psychoanalysis Work with Persons Afflicted By Schizophrenia? Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(5), 1–5.
Enger, C., Weatherby, L., Reynolds, R. F., Glasser, D. B., & Walker, A. M. (2004). Serious Cardiovascular Events and Mortality Among Patients with Schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 192(1), 19–27.
Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1941). A revised psychopathology of the psychoses and psychoneuroses. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 22, 250–270.
Fakra, E., Salgado-Pineda, P., Delaveau, P., Hariri, A. R., & Blin, O. (2008). Neural bases of different cognitive strategies for facial affect processing in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 100(1), 191–205.
Fan, J. B., & Sklar, P. (2005). Meta-analysis reveals association between serotonin transporter gene STin2 VNTR polymorphism and schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(10), 928–938.
Fatemi, S. H., Reutiman, T. J., Folsom, T. D., Huang, H., Oishi, K., Mori, S., Smee, D. F., Pearce, D. A., Winter, C., Sohr, R., & Juckel, G. (2008). Maternal infection leads to abnormal gene regulation and brain atrophy in mouse offspring: Implications for genesis of neurodevelopmental disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 99(1), 56–70.
Fearon, P., Kirkbride, J. B., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Lloyd, T., Hutchinson, G., Tarrant, J., Fung, W. L. A., Holloway, J., Mallett, R., Harrison, G., Leff, J., Jones, P. B., & Murray, R. M. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: Results from the MRC AESOP Study. Psychological Medicine, 36(11), 1541–1550.
Ferenczi, S., & Jones, E. (1916). Some Clinical Observations on Paranoia and Paraphrenia. In Contributions to psycho-analysis. (2006-03526-011; pp. 238–249). Richard G. Badger.
Findlay, L. J. (2015). Decision-making processes and health behaviors among adults diagnosed with schizophrenia(2015-99060-062; Issues 9-B(E)). ProQuest Information & Learning.
Flegr, J., & Kuba, R. (2016). The relation of Toxoplasma infection and sexual attraction to fear, danger, pain, and submissiveness. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(3).
Fonseca, L., Diniz, E., Mendonça, G., Malinowski, F., Mari, J., Gadelha, A., Fonseca, L., Diniz, E., Mendonça, G., Malinowski, F., Mari, J., & Gadelha, A. (2020). Schizophrenia and COVID-19: Risks and recommendations. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, AHEAD.
Forman, M. (1975). One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Warner.
Fornito, A., Yücel, M., Wood, S. J., Adamson, C., Velakoulis, D., Saling, M. M., McGorry, P. D., & Pantelis, C. (2008). Surface-based morphometry of the anterior cingulate cortex in first episode schizophrenia. Human Brain Mapping, 29(4), 478–489.
Fors, B. M., Isacson, D., Bingefors, K., & Widerlöv, B. (2007). Mortality among persons with schizophrenia in Sweden: An epidemiological study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 61(4), 252–259.
Foussias, G., & Remington, G. (2010). Antipsychotics and schizophrenia: From efficacy and effectiveness to clinical decision-making. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie, 55(3), 117–125.
Frankle, W. G., Lombardo, I., Kegeles, L. S., Slifstein, M., Martin, J. H., Huang, Y., Hwang, D.-R., Reich, E., Cangiano, C., Gil, R., Laruelle, M., & Abi-Dargham, A. (2006). Serotonin 1A receptor availability in patients with schizophrenia and schizo-affective disorder: A positron emission tomography imaging study with [11C] WAY 100635. Psychopharmacology, 189(2), 155–164.
Fröhlich, F., & Lustenberger, C. (2020). Neuromodulation of sleep rhythms in schizophrenia: Towards the rational design of non-invasive brain stimulation. Schizophrenia Research.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1939). Transference problems in schizophrenics. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 8, 412–426.
Fu, S., Czajkowski, N., & Torgalsbøen, A.-K. (2019). Cognitive, work, and social outcomes in fully recovered first-episode schizophrenia: On and off antipsychotic medication. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes.
Garfield, D., & Mackler, D. (2013). Beyond Medication: Therapeutic Engagement and the Recovery from Psychosis. Routledge.
Garver, D. L., Holcomb, J. A., & Christensen, J. D. (2000). Heterogeneity of response to antipsychotics from multiple disorders in the schizophrenia spectrum. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(12), 964–974.
Gault, J. M., Davis, R., Cascella, N. G., Saks, E. R., Corripio-Collado, I., Anderson, W. S., Olincy, A., Thompson, J. A., Pomarol-Clotet, E., Sawa, A., Daskalakis, Z. J., Lipsman, N., & Abosch, A. (2018). Approaches to neuromodulation for schizophrenia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 89(7), 777–787.
Gazdag, G., & Ungvari, G. S. (2019). Electroconvulsive therapy: 80 years old and still going strong. World Journal of Psychiatry, 9(1), 1–6.
Gearon, J. S., Bellack, A. S., Rachbeisel, J., & Dixon, L. (2001). Drug-use behavior and correlates in people with schizophrenia. Addictive Behaviors, 26(1), 51–61.
Gibbs, P. L. (2007). The primacy of psychoanalytic intervention in recovery from the psychoses and schizophrenias. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 35(2), 287–312.
Gil, A., Gama, C. S., de Jesus, D. R., Lobato, M. I., Zimmer, M., & Belmonte-de-Abreu, P. (2009). The association of child abuse and neglect with adult disability in schizophrenia and the prominent role of physical neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(9), 618–624.
Gilmore, J. H. (2010). Understanding what causes schizophrenia: A developmental perspective. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(1), 8–10.
Gilmour, G., Dix, S., Fellini, L., Gastambide, F., Plath, N., Steckler, T., Talpos, J., & Tricklebank, M. (2012). NMDA receptors, cognition and schizophrenia – testing the validity of the NMDA receptor hypofunction hypothesis. Neuropharmacology, 62(3), 1401–1412.
Giovachinni, P., & Boyer, B. L. (1980). Psychoanalytic Treatment of Schizophrenic Borderline and Characterological Disorders(Enlarged 2nd Edition). Jason Aronson, Inc.
Girdler, S. J., Confino, J. E., & Woesner, M. E. (2019). Exercise as a Treatment for Schizophrenia: A Review. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 49(1), 56–69.
Gold, C. (2015). Dose and effect in CBT for schizophrenia. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 207(3), 269–273.
González de Chávez, M. (2009). Treatment of psychoses before the twentieth century. In Y. O. Alanen, M. González de Chávez, A.-L. S. Silver, & B. Martindale (Eds.), Psychotherapeutic approaches to schizophrenic psychoses: Past, present and future. (2009-10328-002; pp. 10–22). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Gonzalez-Flores, B. L. (2020). Impact of independent exercise on recovery, well-being, and motivation among individuals with schizophrenia (2020-28121-043; Issues 4-B). ProQuest Information & Learning.
Gottdiener, W. H. (2006). Individual psychodynamic psychotherapy of schizophrenia: Empirical evidence for the practicing clinician. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 23(3), 583–589.
Gray, L., Scarr, E., & Dean, B. (2006). Serotonin 1a receptor and associated G-protein activation schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Research, 143(2), 111–120.
Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., & Lee, J. (2019). Nonsocial and social cognition in schizophrenia: Current evidence and future directions. World Psychiatry, 18(2), 146–161.
Grignon, S., & Trottier, M. (2005). Capgras Syndrome in the Modern Era: Self Misidentification on an ID Picture. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry / La Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 50(1), 74–75.
Grotstein, J. S. (2001). A rationale for the psychoanalytically informed psychotherapy of schizophrenia and other psychoses: Towards the concept of “rehabilitative psychoanalysis.” A Language for Psychosis: Psychoanalysis of Psychotic States., 9–26.
Grotstein, J. S. (2003). Towards the concept of “rehabilitative psychoanalytic psychotherapy” in the treatment of schizophrenia. Preventive Strategies for Schizophrenic Disorders: Basic Principles, Opportunities and Limits., 350–365.
Gründer, G., & Cumming, P. (2016). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: Current status. In T. Abel & T. Nickl-Jockschat (Eds.), The neurobiology of schizophrenia. (2016-43112-007; pp. 109–124). Elsevier Academic Press.
Gur, R. E., Loughead, J., Kohler, C. G., Elliott, M. A., Lesko, K., Ruparel, K., Wolf, D. H., Bilker, W. B., & Gur, R. C. (2007). Limbic activation associated with misidentification of fearful faces and flat affect in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(12), 1356–1366.
Hadar, R., Bikovski, L., Soto-Montenegro, M. L., Schimke, J., Maier, P., Ewing, S., Voget, M., Wieske, F., Götz, T., Desco, M., Hamani, C., Pascau, J., Weiner, I., & Winter, C. (2018). Early neuromodulation prevents the development of brain and behavioral abnormalities in a rodent model of schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(4), 943–951.
Hagiwara, H., Fujita, Y., Ishima, T., Kunitachi, S., Shirayama, Y., Iyo, M., & Hashimoto, K. (2008). Phencyclidine-induced cognitive deficits in mice are improved by subsequent subchronic administration of the antipsychotic drug perospirone: Role of serotonin 5-HT-sub(1A) receptors. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(6), 448–454.
Hashimoto, T., Bazmi, H. H., Mirnics, K., Wu, Q., Sampson, A. R., & Lewis, D. A. (2008). Conserved regional patterns of GABA-related transcript expression in the neocortex of subjects with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(4), 479–489.
Healy, D. (2006). Neuroleptics and mortality: A 50-year cycle: Invited commentary on... schizophrenia, neuroleptic medication and mortality. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188(2), 128.
Hendrick, I. (1928). Encephalitis lethargica and the interpretation of mental disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 7, 989–1014.
Henssler, J., Brandt, L., Müller, M., Liu, S., Montag, C., Sterzer, P., & Heinz, A. (2020). Migration and schizophrenia: Meta-analysis and explanatory framework. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 270(3), 325–335.
Hoeffding, L. K., Rosengren, A., Thygesen, J. H., Schmock, H., Werge, T., & Hansen, T. (2017). Evaluation of shared genetic susceptibility loci between autoimmune diseases and schizophrenia based on genome-wide association studies. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 71(1), 20–25.
Hong, J., & Bang, M. (2020). Anti-inflammatory Strategies for Schizophrenia: A Review of Evidence for Therapeutic Applications and Drug Repurposing. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, 18(1), 10–24.
Høyersten, J. G. (1996). [Possessed! Some historical, psychiatric and curent moments of demonic possession]. Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening: Tidsskrift for Praktisk Medicin, Ny Raekke, 116(30), 3602–3606.
Hua, M., Peng, Y., Zhou, Y., Qin, W., Yu, C., & Liang, M. (2020). Disrupted pathways from limbic areas to thalamus in schizophrenia highlighted by whole-brain resting-state effective connectivity analysis. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 99, 109837.
İpçi, K., Yildiz, M., İncedere, A., Kiras, F., Esen, D., & Gürcan, M. B. (2020). Subjective recovery in patients with schizophrenia and related factors. Community Mental Health Journal.
Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M., Hanssen, M., Vollebergh, W., de Graaf, R., & van Os, J. (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109(1), 38–45.
Jauhar, S., McKenna, P. J., Radua, J., Fung, E., Salvador, R., & Laws, K. R. (2014). Cognitive-behavioural therapy for the symptoms of schizophrenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis with examination of potential bias. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204(1), 20–29.
Jentsch, J. D., & Roth, R. H. (1999). The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: From NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 20(3), 201–225.
Jia, J., Shen, J., Liu, F.-H., Wong, H. K., Yang, X.-J., Wu, Q.-J., Zhang, H., Wang, H.-N., Tan, Q.-R., & Zhang, Z.-J. (2019). Effectiveness of electroacupuncture and electroconvulsive therapy as additional treatment in hospitalized patients with schizophrenia: A retrospective controlled study. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.
Joukamaa, M., Heliövaara, M., Knekt, P., Aromaa, A., Raitasalo, R., & Lehtinen, V. (2006). Schizophrenia, neuroleptic medication and mortality. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188(2), 122–127.
Joyal, C. C., Hallé, P., Lapierre, D., & Hodgins, S. (2003). Drug abuse and/or dependence and better neuropsychological performance in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 63(3), 297–299.
Juckel, G., & Hoffmann, K. (2018). [The Indian Ayurveda medicine-a meaningful supplement to psychiatric treatment?]. Der Nervenarzt, 89(9), 999–1008.
Jung, C. G. (1925). The content of the psychoses. In J. S. Van Teslaar (Ed.), An outline of psychoanalysis.(2006-21557-012; pp. 255–271). Modern Library.
Kane, J. M., & Leucht, S. (2008). Unanswered questions in schizophrenia clinical trials. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(2), 302–309.
Kapelski, P., Hauser, J., Dmitrzak-Weglarz, M., Skibinska, M., Slopien, A., Kaczmarkiewicz-Fass, M., Rajewska, A., Gattner, K., & Czerski, P. M. (2006). Brak asocjacji pomiedzy polimorfizmem insercyjno-delecyjnym promotorowego odcinka genu transportera serotoniny a schizofrenia. Psychiatria Polska, 40(5), 925–935.
Kapsambelis, V. (2019). Psychoanalytic approaches to psychotic disorders in a public mental health system. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 35(4), 577–585.
Kelly, D. L., Rowland, L. M., Patchan, K. M., Sullivan, K., Earl, A., Raley, H., Liu, F., Feldman, S., & McMahon, R. P. (2016). Schizophrenia clinical symptom differences in women vs men with and without a history of childhood physical abuse. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10.
Kesey, K. (1963). One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Berkley.
Khandaker, G. M., Zimbron, J., Dalman, C., Lewis, G., & Jones, P. B. (2012). Childhood infection and adult schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of population-based studies. Schizophrenia Research, 139(1–3), 161–168.
Kim, H., Kim, D., & Kim, S. H. (2018). Association of types of delusions and hallucinations with childhood abuse and neglect among inpatients with schizophrenia in South Korea: A preliminary study. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, 10(3), 208–212.
Kline, J., Becker, J., & Giese, C. (1992). Psychodynamic interventions revisited: Options for the treatment of schizophrenia. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 29(3), 366–377.
Knight, J. G. (1982). Dopamine-receptor-stimulating autoantibodies: A possible cause of schizophrenia. Lancet (London, England), 2(8307), 1073–1076.
Knight, J. G., Menkes, D. B., Highton, J., & Adams, D. D. (2007). Rationale for a trial of immunosuppressive therapy in acute schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(5), 424–431.
Koch, E., Rosenthal, B., Lundquist, A., Chen, C.-H., & Kauppi, K. (2020). Interactome overlap between schizophrenia and cognition. Schizophrenia Research, S0920996420303467.
Kohler, C. G., Loughead, J., Ruparel, K., Indersmitten, T., Barrett, F. S., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2008). Brain activation during eye gaze discrimination in stable schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 99(1), 286–293.
Kortegaard, H. M. (1993). Music therapy in the psychodynamic treatment of schizophrenia. Music Therapy in Health and Education., 55–65.
Kozloff, N., Mulsant, B. H., Stergiopoulos, V., & Voineskos, A. N. (2020). The COVID-19 Global Pandemic: Implications for People with Schizophrenia and Related Disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin.
Krogmann, A., Peters, L., von Hardenberg, L., Bödeker, K., Nöhles, V. B., & Correll, C. U. (2019). Keeping up with the therapeutic advances in schizophrenia: A review of novel and emerging pharmacological entities. CNS Spectrums, 24(S1), 38–69.
Kroll, J. L. (2007). New directions in the conceptualization of psychotic disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(6), 573–577.
Kumar, V., Vajawat, B., & Rao, N. P. (2020). Frontal gaba in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of 1h-mrs studies. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry.
Lamster, F., Kiener, J., Wagner, K., Rief, W., Görge, S. C., Iwaniuk, S., Leube, D., Falkenberg, I., Kluge, I., Kircher, T., & Mehl, S. (2018). Ist Wahn indirekt veränderbar? Ein stimmungsverbesserndes Konzept der kognitive Verhaltenstherapie für die stationäre Standardversorgung von Patienten mit schizophrenen Störungen = Are delusions indirectly alterable? A mood-stabilizing CBT-p concept for inpatients with schizophrenia. Verhaltenstherapie, 28(3), 138–146.
Laskemoen, J. F., Büchmann, C., Barrett, E. A., Collier-Høegh, M., Haatveit, B., Vedal, T. J., Ueland, T., Melle, I., Aas, M., & Simonsen, C. (2020). Do sleep disturbances contribute to cognitive impairments in schizophrenia spectrum and bipolar disorders? European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 270(6), 749–759.
Laursen, T. M. (2019). Causes of premature mortality in schizophrenia: A review of literature published in 2018. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 32(5), 388–393.
Laursen, T. M., Munk-Olsena, T., & Vestergaardb, M. (2012). Life expectancy and cardiovascular mortality in persons with schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(2), 83–88.
Lawrence, R., Bradshaw, T., & Mairs, H. (2006). Group cognitive behavioural therapy for schizophrenia: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 13(6), 673–681.
Leão, T. S., Sundquist, J., Frank, G., Johansson, L.-M., Johansson, S.-E., & Sundquist, K. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia or other psychoses in first-and second-generation immigrants: A national cohort study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194(1), 27–33.
Leonhardt, B. L., Hamm, J. A., Belanger, E. A., & Lysaker, P. H. (2015). Childhood sexual abuse moderates the relationship of self-reflectivity with increased emotional distress in schizophrenia. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, 7(3), 195–205.
Lester, D. (2007). Suicide mortality in schizophrenics. Suicide in Schizophrenia., 19–29.
Leucht, S., Burkard, T., Henderson, J., Maj, M., & Sartorius, N. (2007). Physical illness and schizophrenia: A review of the literature. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116(5), 317–333.
Lewis, S., & Lieberman, J. (2008). CATIE and CutLASS: Can we handle the truth? British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(3), 161–163.
Lieberman, J. A., Stroup, T. S., McEvoy, J. P., Swartz, M. S., Rosenheck, R. A., Perkins, D. O., Keefe, R. S. E., Davis, S. M., Davis, C. E., Lebowitz, B. D., Severe, J., & Hsiao, john K. (2005). Effectiveness of Antipsychotic Drugs in Patients with Chronic Schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 353(12), 1209–1223.
López-Muñoz, F., Alamo, C., Cuenca, E., Shen, W. W., Clervoy, P., & Rubio, G. (2005). History of the discovery and clinical introduction of chlorpromazine. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 17(3), 113–135.
Lorenzo, C. V., Baca-Garcia, E., Diaz-Hernandez, M., Botillo-Martin, C., Perez-Rodriguez, M. M., Fernandez-Ramos, C., Saiz-Gonzalez, M. D., Quintero-Gutierrez, F. J., Saiz-Ruiz, J., Piqueras, J. F., de Rivera, J. L. G., & de Leon, J. (2006). Association between the T102C polymorphism of the serotonin-2A receptor gene and schizophrenia. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 30(6), 1136–1138.
Lublin, H., & Eberhard, J. (2008). Content versus delivery: Challenges and options in the treatment of schizophrenia. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(3), v–vi.
Lucas, R. (2003). The relationship between psychoanalysis and schizophrenia. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 84(1), 3–9.
Lysaker, P. H., Beattie, N. L., Strasburger, A. M., & Davis, L. W. (2005). Reported history of child sexual abuse in schizophrenia: Associations with heightened symptom levels and poorer participation over four months in vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(12), 790–795.
Lysaker, P. H., Meyer, P. S., Evans, J. D., Clements, C. A., & Marks, K. A. (2001). Childhood Sexual Trauma and Psychosocial Functioning in Adults with Schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services, 52(11), 1485–1488.
Lysaker, P. H., Nees, M. A., Lancaster, R. S., & Davis, L. W. (2004). Vocational function among persons with schizophrenia with and without history of childhood sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(5), 435–438.
Marneros, A. (2007). Do schizoaffective disorders exist at all? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115(2), 162.
Masciotra, L., Landreau, F., Conesa, H. A., & Erausquin, G. A. de. (2005). Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia: A New Look at the Role of Dopamine. Trends in Schizophrenia Research., 27–44.
Maurel, M., Belzeaux, R., Adida, M., Fakra, E., Cermolacce, M., Da Fonseca, D., & Azorin, J.-M. (2011). Schizophrénie, cognition et psycho-éducation = Schizophrenia, cognition and psychoeducation. L’Encéphale: Revue de Psychiatrie Clinique Biologique et Thérapeutique, 37(Suppl 2), S151–S154.
May, P. (1968). Treatment of schizophrenia; A comparative study of five treatment methods (First Edition edition). Science House.
McGrath, J., Brown, A., & St Clair, D. (2011). Prevention and Schizophrenia—The Role of Dietary Factors. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(2), 272–283.
McGrath, J. J. (2006). Variations in the incidence of schizophrenia: Data versus dogma. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32(1), 195–197.
Meyer, U., Murray, P. J., Urwyler, A., Yee, B. K., Schedlowski, M., & Feldon, J. (2008). Adult behavioral and pharmacological dysfunctions following disruption of the fetal brain balance between pro-inflammatory and IL-10-mediated anti-inflammatory signaling. Molecular Psychiatry, 13(2), 208–221.
Meyer, Urs, Feldon, J., Schedlowski, M., & Yee, B. K. (2006). Immunological stress at the maternal-foetal interface: A link between neurodevelopment and adult psychopathology. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 20(4), 378–388.
Meyer, Urs, Nyffeler, M., Schwendener, S., Knuesel, I., Yee, B. K., & Feldon, J. (2008). Relative prenatal and postnatal maternal contributions to schizophrenia-related neurochemical dysfunction after in utero immune challenge. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(2), 441–456.
Miller, B. J., Buckley, P., Seabolt, W., Mellor, A., & Kirkpatrick, B. (2011). Meta-Analysis of Cytokine Alterations in Schizophrenia: Clinical Status and Antipsychotic Effects. Biological Psychiatry, 70(7), 663–671.
Miller, P., Lawrie, S. M., Hodges, A., Clafferty, R., Cosway, R., & Johnstone, E. C. (2001). Genetic liability, illicit drug use, life stress and psychotic symptoms: Preliminary findings from the Edinburgh study of people at high risk for schizophrenia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(7), 338–342.
Mishra, A., Mishra, A. K., & Jha, S. (2018). Effect of traditional medicine brahmi vati and bacoside A-rich fraction of Bacopa monnieri on acute pentylenetetrzole-induced seizures, amphetamine-induced model of schizophrenia, and scopolamine-induced memory loss in laboratory animals. Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B, 80, 144–151.
Mitsadali, I., Grayson, B., Idris, N. F., Watson, L., Burgess, M., & Neill, J. (2020). Aerobic exercise improves memory and prevents cognitive deficits of relevance to schizophrenia in an animal model. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 34(7), 695–708.
Mittal, V. A., Saczawa, M. E., Walker, E., Willhite, R., & Walder, D. (2008). Prenatal exposure to viral infection and conversion among adolescents at high-risk for psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 99(1), 375–376.
Møllerhøj, J., Os Stølan, L., Erdner, A., Hedberg, B., Stahl, K., Riise, J., Jedenius, E., & Rise, M. B. (2019). ’i live, I don’t work, but I live a very normal life’—A qualitative interview study of scandinavian user experiences of schizophrenia, antipsychotic medication, and personal recovery processes. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care.
Moran, E. K., Gold, J. M., Carter, C. S., MacDonald, A. W., Ragland, J. D., Silverstein, S. M., Luck, S. J., & Barch, D. M. (2020). Both unmedicated and medicated individuals with schizophrenia show impairments across a wide array of cognitive and reinforcement learning tasks. Psychological Medicine.
Moreno, J. L., Kurita, M., Holloway, T., López, J., Cadagan, R., Martínez-Sobrido, L., García-Sastre, A., & González-Maeso, J. (2011). Maternal influenza viral infection causes schizophrenia- like alterations of 5-HT2A and mGlu₂ receptors in the adult offspring. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(5), 1863–1872.
Mueser, K. T., & Berenbaum, H. (1990). Psychodynamic treatment of schizophrenia: Is there a future? Psychological Medicine, 20(2), 253–262.
Mullen, P. E. (2005). Child sexual abuse and schizophrenia: Author’s reply. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 186(1), 76–76.
Murray, R. M., Grech, A., Phillips, P., & Johnson, S. (2003). What is the relationship between substance abuse and schizophrenia? In R. M. Murray, P. B. Jones, E. Susser, J. van Os, & M. Cannon (Eds.), The epidemiology of schizophrenia. (2003-04863-016; pp. 317–342). Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, C. L. M., Amsbaugh, H. M., Reilly, J. L., Rosen, C., Marvin, R. W., Ragozzino, M. E., Bishop, J. R., Sweeney, J. A., & Hill, S. K. (2018). Beneficial and adverse effects of antipsychotic medication on cognitive flexibility are related to COMT genotype in first episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 202, 212–216.
Niebuhr, D. W., Millikan, A. M., Cowan, D. N., Yolken, R., Li, Y., & Weber, N. S. (2008). Selected infectious agents and risk of schizophrenia among U.S. Military personnel. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(1), 99–106.
Nightingale, L. C., & McQueeney, D. A. (1996). Group therapy for schizophrenia: Combining and expanding the psychoeducational model with supportive psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 46(4), 517–533.
Nixon, N. L., & Doody, G. A. (2005). Official psychiatric morbidity and the incidence of schizophrenia 1881-1994. Psychological Medicine, 35(8), 1145–1153.
Ohara, K. (2007). The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid/dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 31(2), 469–474.
Ortiz-Medina, M. B., Perea, M., Torales, J., Ventriglio, A., Vitrani, G., Aguilar, L., & Roncero, C. (2018). Cannabis consumption and psychosis or schizophrenia development. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(7), 690–704.
Ottet, M.-C., Schaer, M., Cammoun, L., Schneider, M., Debbané, M., Thiran, J.-P., & Eliez, S. (2013). Reduced fronto-temporal and limbic connectivity in the 22q112 deletion syndrome: Vulnerability markers for developing schizophrenia? PLoS ONE, 8(3).
Pandurangi, A. K., & Buckley, P. F. (2020). Inflammation, Antipsychotic Drugs, and Evidence for Effectiveness of Anti-inflammatory Agents in Schizophrenia. In G. M. Khandaker, U. Meyer, & P. B. Jones (Eds.), Neuroinflammation and Schizophrenia (pp. 227–244). Springer International Publishing.
Pang, N., Thrichelvam, N., & Naing, K. O. (2017). Olanzapine-induced Pancytopenia: A Rare but Worrying Complication. East Asian Archives of Psychiatry: Official Journal of the Hong Kong College of Psychiatrists = Dong Ya Jing Shen Ke Xue Zhi: Xianggang Jing Shen Ke Yi Xue Yuan Qi Kan, 27(1), 35–37.
Peltzer, K. (1999). Faith Healing for Mental and Social Disorders in the Northern Province (South Africa). Journal of Religion in Africa, 29(3), 387–402.
Potvin, S., Stip, E., Sepehry, A. A., Gendron, A., Bah, R., & Kouassi, E. (2008). Inflammatory cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: A systematic quantitative review. Biological Psychiatry, 63(8), 801–808.
Poulet, E., Brunelin, J., Kallel, L., D’Amato, T., & Saoud, M. (2008). Maintenance treatment with transcranial magnetic stimulation in a patient with late-onset schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(4), 537–538.
Prasad, K. M. R., Shirts, B. H., Yolken, R. H., Keshavan, M. S., & Nimgaonkar, V. L. (2007a). Brain morphological changes associated with exposure to HSV1 in first-episode schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(1), 105–113.
Prasad, K. M. R., Shirts, B. H., Yolken, R. H., Keshavan, M. S., & Nimgaonkar, V. L. (2007b). HSV1 exposure affects prefrontal cortical structure in schizophrenia patients. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(1), 1.
Pratt, L. A. (2012). Characteristics of adults with serious mental illness in the United States household population in 2007. Psychiatric Services, 63(10), 1042–1046.
Rado, J. T., & Hernandez, E. I. (2014). Therapeutic neuromodulation for treatment of schizophrenia. In P. G. Janicak, S. R. Marder, R. Tandon, & M. Goldman (Eds.), Schizophrenia: Recent advances in diagnosis and treatment. (2014-26994-008; pp. 139–160). Springer Science + Business Media.
Rakitzi, S., Georgila, P., & Becker-Woitag, A. P. (2020). The recovery process for individuals with schizophrenia in the context of evidence-based psychotherapy and rehabilitation: A systematic review. European Psychologist.
Ran, M.-S., Chen, E. Y.-H., Conwell, Y., Lai-Wan Chan, C., Yip, P. S. F., Xiang, M.-Z., & Caine, E. D. (2007). Mortality in people with schizophrenia in rural China: 10-year cohort study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(3), 237–242.
Rashno, M. M., Fallahi, S., Arab-Mazar, Z., & Dana, H. (2019). Seromolecular assess of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women and neonatal umbilical cord blood. EXCLI Journal, 18, 1–7.
Rathbone, J., Zhang, L., Zhang, M., Xia, J., Liu, X., Yang, Y., & Adams, C. E. (2007). Chinese herbal medicine for schizophrenia: Cochrane systematic review of randomised trials. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 379–384.
Read, J., van Os, J., Morrison, A. P., & Ross, C. A. (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: A literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112(5), 330–350.
Read, John, Agar, K., Argyle, N., & Aderhold, V. (2003). Sexual and physical abuse during childhood and adulthood as predictors of hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 76(1), 1–22.
Richard, M. D., & Brahm, N. C. (2012). Schizophrenia and the immune system: Pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy: AJHP: Official Journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 69(9), 757–766.
Robinson, D. S. (2008). Mortality risks and antipsychotics. Primary Psychiatry, 15(4), 21–23.
Rokita, K. I., Dauvermann, M. R., Mothersill, D., Holleran, L., Holland, J., Costello, L., Cullen, C., Kane, R., McKernan, D., Morris, D. W., Kelly, J., Gill, M., Corvin, A., Hallahan, B., McDonald, C., & Donohoe, G. (2020). Childhood trauma, parental bonding, and social cognition in patients with schizophrenia and healthy adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Roser, P. (2019). Cannabis und Schizophrenie—Risikofaktoren, diagnostische Einordnung und Auswirkungen auf Verlauf und Prognose = Cannabis and schizophrenia—Risk factors, diagnostic classification and effects on course and outcome. Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 13(3), 225–232.
Ross, C. (2014). Dissociation in classical texts on schizophrenia. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, 6(4), 342–354.
Ross, C. A. (2006). Dissociation and psychosis: The need for integration of theory and practice. Evolving Psychosis., 238–254.
Rossello, J.-J., Gaillard, G., & Neuilly, M.-T. (2013). Une institution en quête de limites. Le mythe de Tom Sawyer: Un objet transitionnel collectif. = An institution seeking limits. The myth of Tom Sawyer : A collective transitional object. Revue de Psychothérapie Psychanalytique de Groupe, 60, 141–152.
Ryan, J. E., Veliz, P., McCabe, S. E., Stoddard, S. A., & Boyd, C. J. (2020). Association of early onset of cannabis, cigarette, other drug use and schizophrenia or psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 215, 482–484.
Sabe, M., Kaiser, S., & Sentissi, O. (2020). Physical exercise for negative symptoms of schizophrenia: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials and meta-analysis. General Hospital Psychiatry, 62, 13–20.
Saha, S., Chant, D. C., Welham, J. L., & McGrath, J. J. (2006). The incidence and prevalence of schizophrenia varies with latitude. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 114(1), 36–39.
Saha, S., Chant, D., & McGrath, J. (2007). A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia: Is the differential mortality gap worsening over time? Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(10), 1123–1131.
Saha, S., Welham, J., Chant, D., & McGrath, J. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia does not vary with economic status of the country: Evidence from a systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(5), 338–340.
Sarter, M., Nelson, C. L., & Bruno, J. P. (2005). Cortical Cholinergic Transmission and Cortical Information Processing in Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31(1), 117–138.
Schürhoff, F., Laguerre, A., Fisher, H., Etain, B., Méary, A., Soussy, C., Szöke, A., & Leboyer, M. (2009). Self-reported childhood trauma correlates with schizotypal measures in schizophrenia but not bipolar pedigrees. Psychological Medicine, 39(3), 365–370.
Schwab, S. G., & Wildenauer, D. B. (2008). Research on causes for schizophrenia: Are we close? Schizophrenia Research, 102(1), 29–30.
Scull, A. (2005). Madhouse: A Tragic Tale of Megalomania and Modern Medicine (1st ed.). Yale University Press.
Searles, H. F. (1986). Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects (1 edition). Routledge.
Seeman, P. (2000). Antipsychotic drugs, dopamine D2 receptors, and schizophrenia. Neurotransmitter Receptors in Actions of Antipsychotic Medications., 43–63.
Sepehry, A. A., Potvin, S., Élie, R., & Stip, E. (2007). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) add-on therapy for the negative symptoms of schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(4), 604–610.
Setién‐Suero, E., Neergaard, K., Ortiz‐García de la Foz, V., Suárez‐Pinilla, P., Martínez‐García, O., Crespo‐Facorro, B., & Ayesa‐Arriola, R. (2019). Stopping cannabis use benefits outcome in psychosis: Findings from 10‐year follow‐up study in the PAFIP‐cohort. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 140(4), 349–359.
Severance, E. G., Prandovszky, E., Castiglione, J., & Yolken, R. H. (2015). Gastroenterology issues in schizophrenia: Why the gut matters. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(5), 27.
Severance, E. G., & Yolken, R. H. (2020). From Infection to the Microbiome: An Evolving Role of Microbes in Schizophrenia. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 44, 67–84.
Severance, E. G., Yolken, R. H., & Eaton, W. W. (2016). Autoimmune diseases, gastrointestinal disorders and the microbiome in schizophrenia: More than a gut feeling. Schizophrenia Research, 176(1), 23–35.
Shekunov, J. (2016). Immigration and Risk of Psychiatric Disorders: A Review of Existing Literature. American Journal of Psychiatry Residents’ Journal, 11(2), 3–5.
Shimada, T., Ito, S., Makabe, A., Yamanushi, A., Takenaka, A., & Kobayashi, M. (2019). Aerobic exercise and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Psychiatry Research, 282.
Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for the treatment of co-occurring schizophrenia and pathological gambling: A case study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(2), 181–196.
Silva, M. A., & Restrepo, D. (2019). Recuperación funcional en la esquizofrenia = Functional recovery in schizophrenia. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 48(4), 252–260.
Sim, K., Chan, Y. H., Chua, T. H., Mahendran, R., Chong, S. A., & McGorry, P. (2006). Physical comorbidity, insight, quality of life and global functioning in first episode schizophrenia: A 24-month, longitudinal outcome study. Schizophrenia Research, 88(1), 82–89.
Sim, K., Chua, T. H., Chan, Y. H., Mahendran, R., & Chong, S. A. (2006). Psychiatric comorbidity in first episode schizophrenia: A 2 year, longitudinal outcome study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(7), 656–663.
Simeone, J. C., Ward, A. J., Rotella, P., Collins, J., & Windisch, R. (2015). An evaluation of variation in published estimates of schizophrenia prevalence from 1990-2013: A systematic literature review. BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 1–14.
Sommer, I. E., de Witte, L., Begemann, M., & Kahn, R. S. (2012). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in schizophrenia: Ready for practice or a good start? A meta-analysis. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(4), 414–419.
Spataro, J., Mullen, P. E., Burgess, P. M., Wells, D. L., & Moss, S. A. (2004). Impact of child sexual abuse on mental health: Prospective study in males and females. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 184(5), 416–421.
Staudt, M. D., Herring, E. Z., Gao, K., Miller, J. P., & Sweet, J. A. (2019). Evolution in the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: From Psychosurgery to Psychopharmacology to Neuromodulation. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13.
Steel, C. (2013). CBT for schizophrenia: Evidence-based interventions and future directions (C. Steel, Ed.; 2013-04591-000). Wiley Blackwell.
Stone, M. H. (1999). The History of the Psychoanalytic Treatment of Schizophrenia. J. Amer. Acad. Psychoanal., 583–601.
Sudak, D. M. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10(5), 331–333.
Sumiyoshi, T., Park, S., Jayathilake, K., Roy, A., Ertugrul, A., & Meltzer, H. Y. (2007). Effect of buspirone, a serotonin-sub(1A) partial agonist, on cognitive function in schizophrenia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Schizophrenia Research, 95(1), 158–168.
Sutterland, A. L., Kuin, A., Kuiper, B., van Gool, T., Leboyer, M., Fond, G., & de Haan, L. (2019). Driving us mad: The association of Toxoplasma gondii with suicide attempts and traffic accidents—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(10), 1608–1623.
Suvisaari, J. M., Haukka, J. K., Tanskanen, A. J., & Lönnqvist, J. K. (1999). Decline in the incidence of schizophrenia in Finnish cohorts born from 1954 to 1965. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(8), 733–740.
Szumlinski, K. K., & Kippin, T. E. (2008). Homer: A genetic factor in schizophrenia? Cortical Deficits in Schizophrenia: From Genes to Function., 29–72.
Tandon, R., Nasrallah, H. A., & Keshavan, M. S. (2010). Schizophrenia, “Just the Facts” 5. Treatment and prevention Past, present, and future. Schizophrenia Research, 122(1), 1–23.
Thomann, P. A., Wolf, R. C., Nolte, H. M., Hirjak, D., Hofer, S., Seidl, U., Depping, M. S., Stieltjes, B., Maier-Hein, K., Sambataro, F., & Wüstenberg, T. (2017). Neuromodulation in response to electroconvulsive therapy in schizophrenia and major depression. Brain Stimulation, 10(3), 637–644.
Tidd, C. W. (1937). Increasing reality acceptance by a schizoid personality during analysis. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 1, 176–183.
Tidd, C. W. (1938). A note on the treatment of schizophrenia. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 2, 89–93.
Tochigi, M., Okazaki, Y., Kato, N., & Sasaki, T. (2004). What causes seasonality of birth in schizophrenia? Neuroscience Research, 48(1), 1–11.
Torrey, E. F., Bartko, J. J., & Yolken, R. H. (2012). Toxoplasma gondii and Other Risk Factors for Schizophrenia: An Update. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(3), 642–647.
Trudeau, K. J., Burtner, J., Villapiano, A. J., Jones, M., Butler, S. F., & Joshi, K. (2018). Burden of schizophrenia or psychosis-related symptoms in adults undergoing substance abuse evaluation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206(7), 528–536.
Tsapakis, E.-M., Guillin, O., & Murray, R. M. (2003). Does dopamine sensitization underlie the association between schizophrenia and drug abuse? Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 16, S45-s52.
Turkington, D., Dudley, R., Warman, D. M., & Beck, A. T. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for schizophrenia: A review. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10(1), 5–16.
Turkington, D., Kingdon, D., & Chadwick, P. (2003). Cognitive-behavioural therapy for schizophrenia: Filling the therapeutic vacuum. British Journal of Psychiatry, 183(2), 98–99.
Valon, P. (2020). Gisela Pankow (1914–1998): Towards a psychoanalytic treatment of the psychoses. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 101(1), 169–185.
Vaucher, J., Keating, B. J., Lasserre, A. M., Gan, W., Lyall, D. M., Ward, J., Smith, D. J., Pell, J. P., Sattar, N., Paré, G., & Holmes, M. V. (2018). Cannabis use and risk of schizophrenia: A Mendelian randomization study. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(5), 1287–1292.
Vidal, S., & Huguelet, P. (2019). Thérapie cognitive basée sur le concept de rétablissement pour la schizophrénie: Un cas clinique = Recovery Oriented Cognitive Therapy for schizophrenia: A case report. Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 29(2), 57–66.
Vogel, M., Meier, J., Grönke, S., Waage, M., Schneider, W., Freyberger, H. J., & Klauer, T. (2011). Differential effects of childhood abuse and neglect: Mediation by posttraumatic distress in neurotic disorder and negative symptoms in schizophrenia? Psychiatry Research, 189(1), 121–127.
Volkan, V. D. (2012). Psychoanalytic Technique Expanded: A Textbook on Psychoanalytic Treatment. Pitchstone Publishing.
Volkan, V. D. (1995). The infantile psychotic self and its fates: Understanding and treating schizophrenics and other difficult patients (1995-98163-000). Jason Aronson.
Wang, A. W., Avramopoulos, D., Lori, A., Mulle, J., Conneely, K., Powers, A., Duncan, E., Almli, L., Massa, N., McGrath, J., Schwartz, A. C., Goes, F. S., Weng, L., Wang, R., Yolken, R., Ruczinski, I., Gillespie, C. F., Jovanovic, T., Ressler, K., … Pearce, B. D. (2019). Genome-wide association study in two populations to determine genetic variants associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection and relationship to schizophrenia risk. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 92, 133–147.
Wang, L.-Y., Chen, S.-F., Chiang, J.-H., Hsu, C.-Y., & Shen, Y.-C. (2018). Autoimmune diseases are associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia: A nationwide population-based cohort study. Schizophrenia Research, 202, 297–302.
Warman, D. M., & Beck, A. T. (2003). Cognitive behavioral therapy for schizophrenia: An overview of treatment. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 10(3), 248–254.
Weininger, B. I. (1938). Psychotherapy during convalescence from psychosis. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 2, 257–264.
Weiser, M., Reichenberg, A., Rabinowitz, J., Kaplan, Z., Caspi, A., Yasvizky, R., Mark, M., Knobler, H. Y., Nahon, D., & Davidson, M. (2003). Self-Reported Drug Abuse in Male Adolescents with Behavioral Disturbances, and Follow-up for Future Schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 54(6), 655–660.
Whitaker, R. (2002). Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, And the Enduring Mistreatment Of The Mentally Ill(1St Edition edition). Basic Books.
White, T., Cullen, K., Rohrer, L. M., Karatekin, C., Luciana, M., Schmidt, M., Hongwanishkul, D., Kumra, S., Schulz, S. C., & Lim, K. O. (2008). Limbic structures and networks in children and adolescents with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(1), 18–29.
Williams, L. (Lea) M., Das, P., Liddell, B. J., Olivieri, G., Peduto, A. S., David, A. S., Gordon, E., & Harris, A. W. F. (2007). Fronto-limbic and autonomic disjunctions to negative emotion distinguish schizophrenia subtypes. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 155(1), 29–44.
Winterer, G. (2006). Cortical Microcircuits in Schizophrenia—The Dopamine Hypothesis Revisited. Pharmacopsychiatry, 39, S68-s71.
Włodarczyk, A., Szarmach, J., Cubała, W. J., & Wiglusz, M. S. (2017). Benzodiazepines in combination with antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia: GABA-ergic targeted therapy. Psychiatria Danubina, 29(Suppl 3), 345–348.
Wortinger, L. A., Engen, K., Barth, C., Lonning, V., Jørgensen, K. N., Andreassen, O. A., Haukvik, U. K., Vaskinn, A., Ueland, T., & Agartz, I. (2020). Obstetric complications and intelligence in patients on the schizophrenia-bipolar spectrum and healthy participants. Psychological Medicine, 50(11), 1914–1922.
Wotruba, D., Michels, L., Buechler, R., Metzler, S., Theodoridou, A., Gerstenberg, M., Walitza, S., Kollias, S., Rössler, W., & Heekeren, K. (2014). Aberrant Coupling Within and Across the Default Mode, Task-Positive, and Salience Network in Subjects at Risk for Psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(5), 1095–1104.
Xiao, J., Prandovszky, E., Kannan, G., Pletnikov, M. V., Dickerson, F., Severance, E. G., & Yolken, R. H. (2018). Toxoplasma gondii: Biological parameters of the connection to schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 44(5), 983–992.
Xu, J., He, G., Zhu, J., Zhou, X., St Clair, D., Wang, T., Xiang, Y., Zhao, Q., Xing, Q., Liu, Y., Wang, L., Li, Q., He, L., & Zhao, X. (2015). Prenatal nutritional deficiency reprogrammed postnatal gene expression in mammal brains: Implications for schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(4), 1–9.
Xu, L., Qi, X., Zhu, C., & Wan, L. (2018). Activation of IL-8 and its participation in cancer in schizophrenia patients: New evidence for the autoimmune hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 14.
Xu, X. J., & Jiang, G. S. (2015). Niacin-respondent subset of schizophrenia – a therapeutic review. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 19(6), 988–997.
Zandifar, A., & Badrfam, R. (2020). COVID-19: Considering the prevalence of schizophrenia in the coming decades. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112982.
Zhenxing, Y., Longkun, L., & Miaoxin, L. (2018). De novo mutations as causes of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 270, 1168–1169.
Zullino, D. F., Manghi, R., Rathelot, T., Khan, R., & Khazaal, Y. (2010). Cannabis causes schizophrenia? So does nicotine. Addiction Research & Theory, 18(6), 601–605.