From Higher Education to the Career Paths: Students’ Perspectives of Education and Employability

1. Introduction

The transition from higher education to employment has become increasingly complex in contemporary labor markets. Traditionally, a university degree was viewed as a relatively secure pathway to stable employment. However, economic restructuring, technological change, and shifting employer expectations have weakened this linear relationship, intensifying competition and uncertainty for graduates (Tomlinson, 2017; Holmes et al., 2022). As a consequence, graduate employability has become a central concern for higher education institutions, policymakers, and researchers (Hillage & Pollard, 1998; Clarke, 2018).

Employability is no longer understood solely by the ability to obtain a first job. Rather, it encompasses a combination of skills, knowledge, attributes, and personal resources that enable individuals to gain, maintain, and progress in employment (Yorke, 2006; Fugate et al., 2004). Contemporary perspectives emphasize that employability is shaped by both individual agency and contextual conditions, including institutional support, labor market structures, and social networks (Forrier & Sels, 2003; Donald et al., 2018). In this regard, graduates’ perceptions of their own employability—commonly referred to as perceived employability—play a critical role in shaping motivation, confidence, and career-related behavior (Rothwell & Arnold, 2007; Vanhercke et al., 2014).

In lower- and middle-income countries such as Bangladesh, graduate employability has become an urgent policy and research issue. Despite the rapid expansion of higher education institutions, many graduates struggle to secure suitable employment due to skills gaps, limited work experience, and weak university–industry linkages (Alam et al., 2022; Ehsan, 2021). Employers frequently report deficiencies in communication, problem-solving, and applied skills, while graduates face intense competition for a limited number of quality jobs (Hossain & Arefin, 2025). These challenges are further compounded by institutional inequalities and unequal access to career development resources (Hasan et al., 2024).

Higher education institutions in Bangladesh are therefore under increasing pressure to support not only disciplinary learning but also employability-enhancing experiences. Work-integrated learning (WIL) has been widely promoted as a mechanism for connecting academic study with workplace practice (Zegwaard & Coll, 2009; Jackson, 2016). At the same time, extracurricular activities and informal networking opportunities are recognized as important sources of skill development and social capital (Roulin & Bangerter, 2013; Pinto & Ramalheira, 2017). However, access to these opportunities remains uneven, shaping differential employability outcomes.

Against this backdrop, this study examines how Bangladeshi students and recent graduates understand employability and navigate their transition from higher education into early-career pathways. By foregrounding student perspectives and situating the analysis within established employability theories, the study contributes to a context-sensitive understanding of graduate employability in Bangladesh.

2. Literature Review

Early conceptualizations of employability focused primarily on individuals’ ability to secure employment, often emphasizing the acquisition of skills and labor market readiness (Hillage & Pollard, 1998). Over time, the concept has evolved to encompass broader dimensions of adaptability, lifelong learning, and sustainable career development (Yorke, 2006; Clarke, 2018). Employability is now widely understood as a multidimensional construct comprising human capital, social capital, and psychological capital (Fugate et al., 2004; Luthans et al., 2016).

Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and competencies individuals acquire through education and training. While academic qualifications remain important, research suggests that employers increasingly value transferable skills such as communication, teamwork, and problem-solving (Bridgstock, 2009; Alam et al., 2022). In Bangladesh, skills mismatches between higher education outcomes and labor market demands have been identified as a major barrier to graduate employment (Hossain & Arefin, 2025).

Work-integrated learning has been widely identified as a key mechanism for enhancing employability. Internships, placements, and project-based learning allow students to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world contexts, develop professional identities, and gain workplace experience (Jackson, 2016; Wilton, 2012). Empirical studies suggest that such experiences can positively influence degree performance and early career outcomes (Brooks & Youngson, 2016). However, the effectiveness of WIL depends on quality, supervision, and institutional support—factors that remain inconsistent in many developing-country contexts (Ehsan, 2021).

Beyond formal curricula, social capital plays a crucial role in developing employability. Social capital refers to resources embedded within social networks that facilitate access to information and opportunities (Saifuddin & Zaman, 2026). In labor markets where informal recruitment practices are common, personal connections and referrals can significantly influence employment outcomes (Seibert et al., 2001). Participation in extracurricular activities and professional networks also supports identity development and future orientation, shaping how students imagine and prepare for possible career selves (Stevenson & Leontiev, 2011; Roulin & Bangerter, 2013).

Psychological capital and perceived employability further influence how graduates navigate career transitions. Perceived employability reflects individuals’ beliefs about their capacity to obtain and sustain employment and has been linked to proactive job search behavior and career adaptability (Rothwell & Arnold, 2007; Onyishi et al., 2015). These perceptions are shaped by educational experiences, institutional reputation, and social context (Vanhercke et al., 2014).

More recent perspectives adopt a systemic view of employability. Career Ecosystem Theory conceptualizes careers as embedded within interconnected systems involving individuals, educational institutions, employers, and labor markets (Baruch, 2015; Donald et al., 2024). Sustainable career models further emphasize the dynamic interaction between individual agency and structural conditions over time (De Vos et al., 2020). Such perspectives are particularly relevant in Bangladesh, where employability outcomes are shaped by institutional hierarchies, labor market constraints, and social inequality.

Despite a growing international literature, empirical research capturing students’ perspectives on employability in Bangladesh remains limited. This study addresses this gap by integrating employability theories to examine how students and recent graduates understand and manage employability within a structurally constrained context.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research design and data collection

This study employed a qualitative research design grounded in an interpretivist paradigm to explore how Bangladeshi students and recent graduates construct and interpret employability within the context of higher education and early career transition. Ontologically, the study is informed by relativism, recognizing that reality is socially constructed and experienced differently across individuals (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Epistemologically, the research seeks to understand participants' lived experiences and subjective interpretations of employability and career navigation. Such an approach aligns with qualitative research traditions that prioritize meaning-making and contextual understanding rather than objective measurement (Bryman, 2016; Easterby-Smith et al., 2018).

Structured interviews with open-ended questions were used to collect data. Although the interview guide ensured that all participants addressed comparable themes aligned with the research objectives, the open-ended format enabled respondents to articulate their experiences in their own words. This balance between consistency and flexibility enhanced both reliability and depth of insight. Interviews lasted 45-60 minutes, allowing participants to provide detailed reflections on their perceptions of employability, the influence of higher education, and the challenges they encountered during their transition to the labor market. Purposive sampling was employed to recruit participants at a critical stage between higher education and employment (Patton, 2015). The sample (table 1) comprised 21 participants, including final-year undergraduate students and recent graduates (within 1 year of degree completion) from various universities in Bangladesh.

Participants were recruited through academic and professional networks, and participation was voluntary. Prior to data collection, respondents were informed of the study’s purpose, their right to withdraw at any time, and the measures implemented to ensure confidentiality and anonymity. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. To safeguard identities, respondents were assigned pseudonymous codes (R1–R21). Ethical approval for the study was granted by the East West University Ethical Review Committee (EWUERC). The research adhered to established ethical principles for social science research (Saunders et al., 2007, 2012).

3.2 Respondent Profile

A total of 21 participants (R1–R21) from academic programs including Business Administration, Economics, Engineering, Computer Science, and Microbiology participated in the study. Final-year students and graduates were included in the sample, reflecting diverse notions of preparedness for work and transition.

There was variation in participants' exposure to professional environments: some had completed internships, part-time work, or volunteer experiences, whilst others had little or no practical experience. Drawing on this diversity, the study collected a range of views on perceptions of employability across academic disciplines and institutions.

Table 1: Respondent Profile

All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ permission and transcribed verbatim. Where interviews involved bilingual communication, careful translation procedures were followed to preserve semantic accuracy and contextual meaning.

3.3 Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-stage framework. An inductive strategy was used to allow themes and meanings to surface from participants' voices. The researcher began by becoming familiar with the data through several readings, then created initial codes to develop categories based on prevalent concepts. These codes were subsequently processed and clustered into additional categories through comparative iterative analysis. For rigor and trustworthiness, themes were consistently compared across cases, and researchers also engaged in reflexive note-taking to reduce potential researcher bias (Gibbs, 2007). In this systematic approach, three dominant themes emerged under the study's aim, as follows: i. Students and Graduates’ Employability Perception. ii Higher Education-The Shaper of Employability. iii. Obstacles and Success Factors Related to the Transition from School to Work

This investigation employs the robust trustworthiness framework established by Lincoln and Guba (1985), comprising credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. To enhance credibility, we used comprehensive references and summarized key interview points to accurately capture participants' viewpoints (Atkinson & Coffey, 2003). Transferability was achieved through detailed contextual descriptions and purposive sampling to capture relevant variations within the research setting (Maxwell, 2005; Saunders et al., 2012). Dependability was ensured by creating an audit trail that included recorded interviews, bilingual transcripts, and documented analytical procedures, thereby enabling evaluation of research consistency amid contextual changes (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Confirmability was maintained by meticulously grounding interpretations in raw data and by documenting analytic decisions transparently, thereby adhering to the principles of ethical qualitative research (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

4. Findings and Analysis

The analysis of twenty-two structured interviews yields three interconnected themes: Bangladeshi students' and graduates’ understanding of employability, the impact of higher education, and their reactions to structural barriers encountered in their transition into the workplace. These themes are: Student and Graduate Perceptions of Employability; The Influence of Higher Education in Structuring Employability; Obstacles and Facilitators in the Transition From Higher Education to the Labor Market

4.1 Perceptions of Employability

As a whole, participants conceptualized employability as a complex, not merely academic, concept—incorporating confidence, independence, and practical experience—but fundamentally interpersonal. Students described employability as getting a good job and the capacity to progress professionally through lifelong learning and self-development.

In contrast, confidence was higher amongst those from the applied disciplines (Business, HRM, Computer Science, and Engineering). One computer science student says, “I am pretty confident I will be able to get a job after graduation. At this moment, I could feel my own enthusiasm for the growing knowledge and future employability prospects being compelling enough to get a good job” (R18). Likewise, students from the business discipline also connected employability with a mix of communication and leadership abilities: “I have a very strong CGPA and improved my leadership in the club. This makes me confident that I can eventually get a good job in line with my goals” (R2).

Vocational categories aside, however, Microbiology, English, Philosophy, and Economics students tended to experience significant uncertainty. One microbiology student admitted, “I am worried about my CGPA… employers prefer references or experience. I think I am just not sure that I am going to be able to get a job straight out after university” (R19). A graduate of English shared this worry: “Experience is needed in so many institutions, and they do not want to provide opportunities to freshers. For this reason, new graduates suffer and feel frustrated” (R17).

For some students, employability was portrayed as a continual process, with responsibility for it devolved from the workplace to the individual. As one respondent noted, “University curricula do not evolve as fast, but the world has, and our job market is changing. It is that we have to have an initiative and learn things as such by ourselves” (R18). This perspective was further strengthened by the part-time work experience some respondents already had. A Senior Executive Officer with prior teaching experience explained, “I have worked really young, and I already have experience in teaching and administration. This gives me the advantage in the labor market” (R7).

Overall, participants demonstrated a shift from credential-based employability toward capability-oriented employability, emphasizing self-learning, adaptability, and networking as critical determinants of career readiness.

4.2 The Influence of Higher Education in Shaping Employability

Students invariably insisted that higher education was crucial for academic and intellectual growth, but respondents said it had not adequately prepared them for life after education. There was a view that universities were “foundational but incomplete” in their preparation for employability.

A finance student stated,

“The university builds the base for students, but we have to work on that base further to improve ourselves. Only the foundation cannot help anyone reach new heights” (R4).

Participants considered experiential learning opportunities such as internships, research, lab work, and club activities among the most important skill-building opportunities. For instance, a computer science student reflected upon his involvement in the university’s technology club as life-changing: “Being in the Computer Club helped to provide me with team and cooperative work skills. It is also what allowed me to network and be exposed to practical application” (R18). Equally, students in HRM and business routes saw value in extra-curricular activities and voluntary work for further development of communication and leadership skills: “The Business Club allowed me to bring together alumni from MNCs at a national level. That taught me about how companies work” (R3).

In contrast, lab-based or pure science student indicated a low connection between their discipline and employability. One microbiology student remarked, “The most important thing for me is the practical experience, but there are not so many areas to which you can go with my subject” (R20).

A few universities were lauded for launching career-focused courses and fostering industry relations. An Environmental Science student reflected, “Our university provides us with technical knowledge, lab sessions, and industrial visits in every semester. But it could use more career advice, and internship links would make it even better” (R16).

Similarly, an English graduate noted, “The professional orientation had provided us with some training programs and workshop courses, which have helped us to acquire professional ability more or less, but we need practical training” (R17).

It can be argued that higher education was considered a necessary platform. However, this is not sufficient; students reiterated that employability is shaped by applied learning, experience, and institutional connections, rather than by academic credentials in isolation.

4.3 Barriers and Facilitators in the Transition From Higher Education to the Labor Market

Although hopeful, respondents noted systemic obstacles they faced while negotiating transition to the labor force. The top issues were a lack of choice, systemic bias, insufficient mentorship, financial inequality, and employer preference for experience.

One common frustration was the “experience paradox”: employers look for experienced fresh graduates. As a communication executive noted, “It is hard to find a job because every company wants experienced people. But for freshers who were just completing their degrees, how would they have all the experience?” (R8).

This sentiment was also expressed among participants in various institutions:

“Employers should offer chances to people who can do their job, not just family or friends” (R21).

Students also talked about institutional hierarchy and privilege. Preference is often given to public universities and some major private ones.” Students from well-known universities receive more attention even if their skills are more or less identical. It is not a level playing field” (R18).

Female and middle-class respondents also highlighted financial and gender-based barriers to access to training or internships:

“Not every student can afford extra courses, but employers still expect them” (R17).

Some participants from science and environmental fields described disciplinary barriers, noting that research-based subjects offer few immediate employment options: “Our nation has fewer research or scientific field-type jobs available, so we do not find the opportunities commensurate with our qualifications” (R19).

Several enablers also appeared throughout the interviews. Students referred to networking, English fluency, digital literacy, and ongoing skill development as tactics for overcoming barriers. A marketing student suggested, “Students’ CVs must be built, as well as learning English, and it is necessary to continue improving communication “(R1).

For others, globalization and remote work were seen as prospects for new employability: “Globalization makes career plans easier and better, jobs now at a finger tap away – remote” (R11).

Some even adopted entrepreneurial or flexible career mindsets. An economics student shared, “I want to create my own company. Today’s career is more about management than stability” (R13).

Ultimately, although institutional prestige and structural inequality were powerful influences, individuals' capacity to draw on their adaptive skills, persistence, and learning mechanisms was paramount in a complex Bangladeshi labor market.

5. Discussion

This study demonstrates that Bangladeshi students’ and graduates ' employability is an unfolding, multi‐dimensional process determined by a complex interplay of individual agency, institutional scope for action, and structural constraints. It is found that participants do not regard employability as a final condition tied solely to academic qualifications, but rather as a lifelong process in which one should be adaptable, have self-confidence, and keep learning. This further underscores the previous theoretical reasoning that employability is a psychological and social construct encompassing human, social, and psychological capital (Fugate et al., 2004; Vanhercke et al., 2014; Luthans et al., 2016).

One important point is the evolving move from credential-based to capability-focused perceptions of employability. Students value strong academic results but increasingly view employability as more closely associated with factors beyond technical competence, such as communication, teamwork, leadership, and confidence. This appears to support Clarke’s (2018) proposition that employability has shifted from a concern with qualification attainment or vocational readiness to a more comprehensive focus on lifelong learning and personal flexibility. Respondents from business, HRM, and engineering were more confident about employment outcomes given their investment in applied learning, internships, and co-curricular involvement. By contrast, students in other programs (such as microbiology, environmental science, economics, or philosophy) tended to express greater doubt and concern about their future career prospects. This raises the issue of a very unequal distribution of opportunities for practical learning across degree programs. This is consistent with earlier research showing differences in employability between curriculum- and resource-rich institutions (Jackson, 2016; Hasan et al., 2024).

Higher education proved to be double-edged in its impact. On the one hand, students appreciated universities as institutions that fostered academic formation, intellectual maturity, and self-discipline. At the same time, they perceived higher education to be too unresponsive to the labor market. Many participants noted that the university system in Bangladesh is very theoretical and does little to expose students to experiential or career aspects. These findings are supported by Ehsan (2021), who suggested that career services, practical internship arrangements, and industry linkage in Bangladeshi universities were poorly structured. While some respondents appreciated the value of industrial visits, club activities, and student competitions, the primary narrative is that employability education is piecemeal and largely relies on institutional reputation and individual initiative. Consistent with Social Capital Theory (Seibert et al., 2001), students with greater access to pits or networks and to top universities undoubtedly possessed greater employability capital than those in less-prestigious HEIs.

The results also expose fundamental structural and systemic impediments to fair access to employment. Some students also expressed anger at what they called the “experience paradox,” in which hiring managers seek job candidates with experience, even at entry-level positions. This paradox creates an uneven playing field, especially for those who graduate from schools that offer little to no internship support or have limited alumnae networks. Financial divisions and gendered expectations also limited access to training and development, reproducing class-based and institutional stratification in employability. These results are consistent with Tomlinson’s (2017) contention that employability is a socially embedded practice framed by economic advantage and access to opportunity. This inequality is exacerbated in Bangladesh, where prestige rankings among public–private universities and urban–rural disparities in exposure to and access to resources are pronounced.

However, within these limitations, participants also expressed high levels of agency, optimism, and resilience. Some discussed initiatives such as self-study, online courses, language learning, and informal networking to enhance employability. This corresponds to perceived employability (Vanhercke et al., 2014), whereby individuals' perceptions of their chances of securing employment influence their motivation and proactive behavior. Many informants reported high levels of perceived self-efficacy and flexibility, supporting the importance of psychological capital—confidence, hope, and resilience —for employability in the face of uncertainty (Luthans et al., 2016). Some participants also pursued an entrepreneurial or boundaryless career orientation, desiring control through both self-employment and remote work, which aligns with growing freelance and/or boundaryless career attitudes in emerging country contexts (Donald et al., 2018).

When viewed through the lens of career ecosystem theory (Baruch, 2015), the results suggest that employability in Bangladesh is co-constructed through an interplay between agency and environmental constraints. Some students seek to navigate career ecosystems using the tools at their disposal—education, social connections, and increasingly digital ones—while many also contend with ineffective systems and unequal access. The flexicurity and self-responsibility displayed by the respondents highlight a shift toward a more protean attitude, in which they feel responsible for their employability without significant structural support. However, this self-reliance can never replace systemic flaws, for employability also depends on personal capacity and institutional support.

The discussion suggests that graduate employability in Bangladesh is shaped by a hybrid model of personal agency and systemic constraints. At once an individual pursuit but also a structural result — motivated by self-directed learning and circumscribed by systemic inequity. The evidence indicates that universities should better connect students’ academic knowledge with vocational and career-directed learning. At the same time, policymakers and employers should create opportunities for all, based on potential rather than privilege. Etymologically, employability in Bangladesh is not just about being qualified—it is about being flexible, connected, and robust within an unequal knowledge or labor-market environment.

6. Implications and Limitations

The study highlights the need for higher education institutions to strengthen work-integrated learning, career counseling, and industry engagement, particularly in non-vocational disciplines. Inclusive approaches to experiential learning are necessary to ensure equitable access across student groups (Jackson, 2016; Brooks & Youngson, 2016). Employers and policymakers should consider hiring practices that emphasize potential and trainability rather than institutional prestige alone (Tomlinson, 2017).

The study has several limitations. The sample size was small and primarily urban-based, limiting generalizability. In addition, the findings rely on self-reported perceptions rather than observed employment outcomes. Future research could adopt longitudinal or comparative designs to examine how perceived employability translates into actual career trajectories across different contexts (De Vos et al., 2020).

Acknowledgments: The author would like to sincerely thank the research participants for generously sharing their valuable experiences and insights, which made this study possible.

Ethical Approval: This study received ethical approval from the East West University Ethical Review Committee (EWUERC). Reference no. EWU/IQAC/Dept.BA/2026/04-2

Consent to Participate: Informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews. 

Declaration of Conflicting Interest: The author declared no potential conflicts of interest regarding this article's research, authorship, and/or publication. 

Funding Statement: The author received no financial support for this article's research, authorship, and/or publication. 

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted Technologies: This study has not used any generative AI tools or technologies in the preparation of this manuscript.