Immigration and Resilience: A Review of Paradigms, Policies, and Emerging Challenges

1. Introduction

Immigration has recently become one of the most pressing issues in the global debate, with far- reaching implications for national economies, social structures, and security dynamics (Kwilinski et al., 2024; Peters et al., 2024). Immigration paradigms refer to the various structures and regulations that control people's cross-border movements (Achermann, 2021). These paradigms affect not only the lives of immigrants, but also thesocial, economic, and political stability of the host countries (Haas et al., 2015; Massey, 2013). In an increasingly interconnected world, immigration laws are inextricably linked to global mobility, which refers to the ease with which individuals travel borders for purposes such aswork, education, asylum, or family reunification. Hence, global mobility has influenced labour markets, cultural interactions, and international relations (Bauder, 2015; Ridgway & Kirk, 2021).

Nowadays, the impact of immigration on national resilience, perceived as a nation's ability to resist and adapt to internal and external threats, hasbeen in the spotlight. This is to say that immigration has its value in serving national interests. It can boost national resilience by increasing economic productivity, cultural diversity, and population growth (Dustmann & Görlach, 2016). The newly re- elected Trump, for instance, underhis administration has shown a controversial executive order to ban refugees and conduct mass deportation of unwanted migrants (What Trump Has Done since Taking Power, 2025). In contrast, poorly managed immigration can cause social instability, cultural conflict, and economic pressure (Castles, 2004; Doust Mohammadi et al., 2024). The way of perceiving immigration mainly consists of two contrary perceptions of economic and security (Hollifield et al., 2022). Meanwhile, Indonesia is trapped in between these two paradigms, which do not recognize refugeestatus but are unable to avoid humanitarian responsibility in the eyes of the world. For this reason, understanding how different immigration paradigms affect national resilience is especially important for countries that are both sources and recipients of migration like Indonesia.

Therefore, the purpose of this literature review is to investigate how immigration paradigms impact national resilience and global mobility.Specifically, it seeks to investigate the theoretical basis of immigration paradigms and how they relate to national resilience. Secondly, examines theinfluence of immigration policy in the main global regions, including North America, Europe, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Thirdly, examine Indonesia as a comparative case study, focusing on how its immigration paradigm affects national resilience and fits within the larger regional context of Southeast Asia. Fourthly, analyze the approaches used in the literature to study immigration and national resilience. Lastly, discusses the policy implications for Indonesia, considering its strategic position as both a source and destination of migrants.

2. Method

The research method for this literature study was formulated to ensure extensive coverage of crucial academic material regarding immigrationparadigms and national resilience, specifically within the Indonesian context. The procedure begins with database selection from Scopus, JSTOR,Taylor & Francis, and Google Scholar as the principal databases for the literature search. These databases were selected to guarantee access to high-quality, peer-reviewed academic articles, and encompassing a wide selection of subjects and viewpoints. The utilization of these databases combined assured that the literature review included a varied and thorough array of high-quality academic sources, addressing both foundational theories and contemporary developments.

This review explores the impact of immigration paradigms on national resilience. It examines the theoretical foundations of immigration paradigms, including push-pull factors, migratory systems theory, and transnationalism. The study also analyzes key themes such as securityimplications, social and cultural assimilation, and economic consequences, comparing Indonesia's immigration paradigm with other regions. It also examines how immigration policies can strengthen or weaken national resilience, highlighting the potential benefits and drawbacks of Indonesia's immigration policy. Additionally, innovations and advancements in migration research are briefly discussed. The review concludes by proposingreforms to improve Indonesia's immigration system and emphasizes the need for data-driven investigations.

3. Key Concepts

Articulating various key concepts used in this research helps to clarify and contextualize the situation at hand. Firstly, the immigration paradigm is the theoretical framework that underpins national immigration policies, including both legal and social considerations (Haas et al., 2020). A nation's immigration framework is influenced by its historical migration patterns, economic necessities, cultural perspectives, and political climate(Massey, 2013). For instance, the "open-door" policy of Southeast Asia countries contrasts with Australia's "restrictive immigration" approach, demonstrating opposing viewpoints that influence national labour markets and demographics. Meanwhile, global mobility refers to people's capacity to travel across boundaries for reasons such as family reunions, education, and jobs. Globalization is inextricably linked to today's development, which is known for its interconnection. Global migration is both voluntary and involuntary, with a significant impact on labour markets, economic development, and intercultural engagement (Harney, 2024; Pucik et al., 2023).

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Theoretical Framework

Immigration is a complex process influenced by various elements, requiring a comprehensive theoretical framework. Push-pull, securitization, and global migration governance theories are commonly discussed, and their strategies are compared to understand immigration control.

Considered the most basic theory in the subject of migration studies, the push-pull theory was first expressed by Lee (1966), which asserts that individuals are driven from their own country by "push" causes including unemployment, poverty, and political unrest; they are attracted to migrate to a new nation by "pull" factors including better job possibilities, political stability, and better living conditions. The thesis holds that both kinds of elements affect migration. This concept is especially crucial for comprehending economic migration, especially concerning the movement of people to economically developed countries in the quest for better opportunities.

Zimmerman (1994) and Datta (2015) claim that a better approach to comprehending the financial reasons behind migration is the push-pull theory. This is so because migratory patterns are driven by the differences in national economic possibilities. Within Indonesia, the push-pull theoryclarifies the dynamics of the labour movement to and from the country. It especially emphasizes the impact on migration patterns of economic disparities between Indonesia and her surrounding countries.

Conversely, Buzan, Waever, and de Wilde (1998) say that securitization theory highlights how issues are seen as threats to national security. According to this point of view, migration can be "securitized" when political actors characterize it as a security concern, therefore justifyingharsh policies to control it. Particularly in North America and Europe, this approach has been widely used to understand the increasing securitization of migration policies in the aftermath of the 9/11 tragedy (Huysmans, 2006). The way immigrants are portrayed as dangerous threats has produced restrictive immigration laws, especially border control policies and detention practices.

Securitization theory can thus help to define Indonesia's response to immigrants and asylum seekers. Concerns about human trafficking andterrorism have driven Indonesia to restrict borders and be reluctant to let refugees into neighbouring cities (Missbach, 2015; Nethery, 2017).Clearly how the securitization of migration is done in Indonesia is shown by the way asylum seekers are often portrayed in media and political debate as prospective security concerns (Missbach et al., 2025).

From another angle, global migration governance stresses the part international institutions, multilateral agreements, and regional cooperation playin regulating migrant flows (Lavenex & Piper, 2022). Unlike push-pull and securitization theories, which mainly focus on national-level dynamics, this concept highlights the importance of international frameworks including the Global Compact for Migration and the 1951 Refugee Convention. This helps one to understand how countries like Indonesia interact with international agencies like the UNHCR and the InternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM) to restrict migration.

Given Indonesia's role as a transit country for asylum seekers, global migration regulation is particularly crucial for that country. Indonesia's participation in international organizations and regional projects like the Bali Process illustrates its attempts to fit its immigration policy with broader worldwide principles even if it is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention (Kneebone, 2014). This framework clarifies Indonesia'schallenges in balancing national sovereignty with obligations for international humanitarianism.

Simply said, securitization theory addresses the political framing of migration as a security concern whereas the push-pull theory provides anunderstanding of the social and economic causes of migration. On the other hand, global migration governance stresses the importance of world collaboration in migration control. From personal motives to state-level security concerns and global governance structures, these concepts taken together offer complete awareness of the several aspects of immigration.

Simultaneously, national resilience has grown in significance in migration studies as scholars and policymakers work to determine if nations canmeet migration expectations. National resilience is a country's ability to bounce back from shocks, maintain stability, and heal from upheavals.Resilience models underscore the framework of immigration and propose the need to include immigrants in ways that enhance economic, social, and cultural stability (Preston et al., 2022).

More precisely, economic resilience is a nation's capacity to maximize immigration to raise its GDP. Immigration can help to create economic resilience by addressing labour shortages, boosting innovation, and increasing manufacturing (Dustmann & Görlach, 2016). As a matter of fact, forsectors like technology and healthcare, which are essential for Indonesia's development, trained immigrants benefit (Purnomo et al., 2023). Social resilience thus is the ability of a society to maintain coherence and adapt to demographic change. Good integration of immigrants can assist in reducing conflicts, boost social cohesiveness, and foster understanding among civilizations (Kende et al., 2022). This implies that integrating immigrants to solve social resilience in Indonesia depends much on the local communities' cultural diversity as well as on Indonesia itself. Security resilience is the ability of a country to manage the various security risks associated with immigration. This element of resilience is closely connected to securitization theory, which regards migration as a possible threat to national security (Buzan et al., 1998). For Indonesia, securityresilience includes problems with border control, terrorism, and human trafficking (McKenzie, 2019).

Understanding of immigration and its connection with national resilience has evolved drastically over the past decades. Early in the 20th century, migration was largely seen via an economic prism; the labour movement was seen as a method to overcome industrializing nations employmentshortages (Haas et al., 2020). During this period, immigration rules largely aimed to let workers help to promote economic growth. Particularlyregarding post-colonial migration to Europe, the focus of the latter half of the 20th century shifted toward the social and cultural consequences ofimmigration. Scholars such as Stephen Castles stressed the challenges of bringing immigrants into host nations and the likelihood of societal conflict. Growing knowledge of the need to manage the cultural features of migration to increase national resilience motivated the policy reactionof multiculturalism in countries like Australia and Canada (Triandafyllidou, 2024).

Given increasing attention to security, the events of September 11th marked a significant shift in the immigration discussion. Particularly in NorthAmerica and Europe, where fears about terrorism led to stricter border policies and more restricted immigration rules, the securitization of migration became a major topic (Huysmans, 2006). Frameworks like the Global Compact for Migration were supposed to encourage regular, safe, orderly migration. International migration management showed further cooperation during this period as well (Kraly & Hovy, 2020) (Kraly & Hovy, 2020). Considering immigration, the concept of national resilience has been more important recently. Scholars have stressed the need for policies that not only control migrant flows but also enhance the resilience of host countries by employing economic, social, and cultural integration (van Riemsdijk & Panizzon, 2022). This shift reveals a greater awareness of immigration as a challenge as well as a possibility for national development.

Still, numerous academics have made major contributions to our knowledge of immigration and its interaction with national resilience. Leadingauthority in migration studies, Stephen Castles is well- known for his work on the worldwide aspects of migration and integration issues. His studies have underlined the need to realize migration as a dynamic process impacted by political, social, and economic elements. The work ofCastles is especially pertinent to Indonesia since it offers a framework for comprehending the complexity of migration in a world fast changing (Haas et al., 2020).

Later on, Benedict Anderson's idea of "imagined communities" has been very important in helping to explain how different countries view immigrants and the part national identity plays in forming immigration laws. His studies on borders and sovereignty provide light on how nationscreate and preserve symbolic as well as physical borders in reaction to migration (Anderson, 2006). Moreover, Sassen's studies on global cities and migration underline how closely migration is linked with world economic activities (Sassen, 2014). Her work emphasizes how centres of migration cities and the difficulties in controlling different urban populations (Ribas-Mateos & Sassen, 2022). This viewpoint is pertinent to Indonesia because cities like Jakarta significantly help to absorb migrant populations and define the immigration policy of the nation.

Another well-known person is Hollifield, who contends that knowledge of how various immigration policies affect national resilience depends mostly on the arguments about open borders against restricted immigration policies (Hollifield et al., 2022). Proponents of open borders contend that letting people migrate freely will boost social cohesiveness, encourage cultural interaction, and help accelerate economic development. For example, by drawing qualified workers and supporting diversity, Canada's open immigration policy has been applauded for helping to explain its economic resiliency. Advocates of restricted immigration laws, on the other hand, stress the need to preserve national security, social order, and local worker interests. Reflecting worries about terrorism and societal stability, the securitizing of migration following 9/11 resulted in tougherborder restrictions in the United States and Europe. Restricted policies are sometimes defended in Indonesia on security and illegal immigration prevention.

From an ethical perspective, the case mostly revolves around personal rights to pursue better possibilities against state power to border control.Although governments might justify such limitations as necessary for national security, humanitarian organizations argue that these laws violate the rights of immigrants and asylum seekers (Ismail, 2023). From an economic perspective, on the other hand, open borders can help to alleviate labourshortages and promote development; however, restricted rules could so lessen the benefits of migration. Regarding security, the debate on immigration laws largely centres on security measures. Proponents of restricted policies argue that halting crime and terrorism depends on immigration being under control; conversely, some argue that securitization leads to immigrant marginalization and raises societal tensions (Saunders, 2025).

All things considered, the ideas covered in this section provide a structure for analyzing how immigration paradigms affect national resilience. Especially about labour migration, the push-pull theory will clarify the financial motivations behind travel to and from Indonesia. Securitizationtheory will help us to understand how migration is portrayed as a security threat in Indonesia, therefore influencing policy responses to asylum seekers and refugees. Global migration governance will help to place Indonesia's involvement in international migration systems and efforts to combine national sovereignty with international obligations. Using these theories in the Indonesian context aids this literature review in providing a sophisticated grasp of how immigration paradigms influence national resilience, therefore underlining both the potential and challenges encountered by Indonesia in managing migration

4.2. Review of Key Themes

4.2.1. Theme 1: Major Findings and Contribution

Reflecting the particular economic, social, and political settings of every geographical area, immigration studies have produced a spectrum of results. Key results from North America, Europe, Southeast Asia, Australia, and other countries are compared in this part together with the impact of open versus restricted immigration policies on preserving national resilience.

Inspired by economic requirements and security issues, immigration policies in North America, especially in the United States and Canada, have typically wavered between openness and restriction (Portes & Rumbaut, 2024). Emphasizing multiculturalism and integration, Canada's partially liberal immigration policy has been demonstrated to strengthen national resilience by driving economic growth and social cohesion (Zhang et al., 2023). On the other hand, the U.S. has struggled with issues of illegal immigration and divisive public opinion that have compromised socialresilience and stability (Massey, 2013).

Especially given the Syrian refugee crisis, European nations have seen notable migrant flows. Relatively liberal policies used by nations like Germany gave many refugees sanctuary, therefore promoting demographic renewal but also creating social and political unrest (Secen, 2024).Driven by nationalist feelings, restrictive measures in Eastern European countries have, on the other hand, hampered their capacity to gain from the possible economic contributions of immigrants (Estevens, 2018).

In comparison, immigration policies range greatly throughout Southeast Asia. Selective immigration laws implemented by Malaysia andSingapore give talented immigrants top priority, hence promoting economic resilience. With an eye on controlling labour migration and handling the issues presented by asylum seekers, immigration policies in Indonesia have been moulded by both economic requirements and securityconcerns (Saputra et al., 2024). In the meantime, Australia's points-based immigration system has been effective in drawing talentedimmigrants, therefore supporting national resilience and economic growth. Emphasizing integration and multiculturalism, the nation has helped tolower social tensions and create an immigrant sense of belonging (Fong, 2023). Understanding national resilience depends mostly on the argument between restricted and open immigration policies. As shown in Germany and Canada, open immigration laws have been successful in alleviatinglabour shortages, advancing cultural variety, and strengthening economic resilience (Cerna, 2009). These measures can, however, also cause difficulties for social integration, especially in cases of significant immigration influx within a short span. On the other hand, restrictive immigration laws are sometimes defended on the grounds of preserving social order and safeguarding national security. By excluding skilled workers and building administrative obstacles to integration, these policies can restrict the financial advantages of immigration. As a result of security and social stability concerns, Indonesia has instituted stringent measures to control the influx of asylum seekers (Heriyanto et al., 2023).Although these policies have been useful in controlling migratory flows, they have also prevented the nation from reaping the benefits thatcould have come from welcoming refugees and those seeking asylum.

4.2.2. Theme 2: Ongoing Debates and Emerging Areas

Changes in worldwide migration patterns and technological improvements are reflected in the ever-evolving field of immigration studies, which is characterized by new debates and developing areas of inquiry. This part addresses the rising topic of climate refugees and emphasizes how technology might help to restrict immigration.

With nations depending more on artificial intelligence (AI) and biometric technologies to control migration flows and improve border security, technology in immigration control has grown to be a major topic of debate (Molnar, 2023; Nalbandian, 2022). Systems driven by artificial intelligence are finding ways to evaluate visa applications, forecast migration patterns, and spot possible security risks. For instance, migrants' identity is being confirmed using biometrics like fingerprinting and facial recognition, therefore preventing fraud (Bigo, 2014). These technologiescreate ethical questions about privacy, data security, and the possibility of discrimination even while they provide great efficiency and security advantages (Molnar, 2023).

Critics of artificial intelligence applications in immigration control contend that it might perpetuate prejudices  and result in unfair treatment ofimmigrants, especially those from underprivileged groups (Saunders, 2025). Although data security issues still exist, the use of biometric technology for immigration control in Indonesia shows the government's attempts to modernize its border management  (Lindquist, 2018; Putra & Arifin, 2020).

On the other hand, climate change has become a major factor causing migration and resulted in the emergence of climate refugees, or peoplecompelled to flee their homes because of environmental changes including rising sea levels, severe events, and desertification (Black et al., 2011). This phenomenon has important consequences for national resilience since nations must adjust to the difficulties presented by environmental-driven migration.

As a result of climate-induced migration, many people have already been compelled to leave their homes in countries like Bangladesh and those in the Pacific Island nations, as the sea levels continue to rise (Gilmore et al., 2024). Particularly in coastal regions susceptible to sea-level rise, Indonesia boasts a significant risk of climate-induced migration (Hugo, 2011) . The government's resilience plan shows a weakness since it has not yet created a thorough policy framework to handle the issues presented by climate refugees. For Indonesia and other surrounding nations, theemergence of climate refugees poses a major political obstacle. Improving national resilience requires developing adaptive policies that both solve theunderlying causes of climate change and the demands of impacted communities.

4.3. Critical Analysis and Identification of Gaps

Despite the fact that immigration studies have come a long way in examining how immigration policies affect national resilience, there are still important gaps and missing pieces to the puzzle. Focusing on areas like theoretical foundations and data restrictions, as well as addressing biases that impact the results, this part offers a critical evaluation of the robustness of previous studies.

Drawing on push-pull theory, securitization theory, global migration governance, and resilience models, immigration studies have a varied theoretical basis. Explaining economic migration is ideal for the push-pull theory since it emphasizes the elements motivating people to migrate as well as the possibilities drawing them to target nations (Lee, 1966). It has been criticized, then, for oversimplifying the migration process byneglecting the intricate social, cultural, and political elements influencing migration choices (de Haas, 2021).

Particularly in the post-9/11 setting, securitization theory has been crucial in helping someone comprehend how migration is presented as a security issue. However, this emphasis on security sometimes results in a one-sided perspective on migration, stressing the possible dangerspresented by immigrants and so excluding their contributions to host countries (Abramson, 2024; Bibeau et al., 2025; Kinacioglu, 2023).Securitization theory has been applied in Indonesia to support restrictive immigration laws, although this strategy has been criticized for ignoringthe social and economic gains of including refugees and asylum seekers (Missbach, 2017). In addition, global migration governance offers a useful perspective on how international organizations and agreements might help to control migration. The literature sometimes does, however, lack acritical analysis of the shortcomings of these systems, notably the difficulties nations like Indonesia have in juggling national sovereignty with international humanitarian commitments.

In particular, research on immigration faces substantial obstacles related to data availability and quality. Much research depends on secondary data sources such as government statistics and international databases, which might not always be reliable or current (Pötzschke & Rinken, 2022; Rampazzo et al., 2023). Data on irregular migration and illegal immigration in Indonesia are sometimes insufficient, which makes it challenging toevaluate the whole extent of migration and how it affects national resilience. Another typical restriction in immigration research is outdateddatabases. Given the fluid structure of migration, depending too much on data that is several years behind could result in obsolete conclusions thatdo not reflect current migration trends or policy environments (Haas et al., 2015). Studies on the economic effects of migration in Southeast Asia, for instance, sometimes rely on early 2000s statistics that might not adequately depict the contemporary economic contributions made by migrants in the area (Hugo, 2011).

Additionally, many of the current publications clearly show geopolitical prejudices, especially in research on migration in North America and Europe that ignore migration patterns in the Global South (Schmiz et al., 2022). Particularly, considering the Syrian refugee crisis and migration flows to Europe and the United States, this prejudice has caused an over-focus on the security concerns related to migration. Consequently, theparticular difficulties and possibilities experienced by nations such as Indonesia are sometimes disregarded in the more general migration debate.

Furthermore, what most affecting the results of immigration studies are cultural biases. Focusing on individual rights and multiculturalism, researchdone in Western settings sometimes presupposes a universal approach to integration (Ward et al., 2018). Nevertheless, in nations with distinct cultural norms and values, like Indonesia, where religious and community organizations are pivotal to the integration process, these assumptions might not prevail (Hutabarat, 2023; Sadjad, 2022).

How to best facilitate social integration is another contentious issue. Some academics support multicultural policies that honour and celebrate ethnic variety, contending that these initiatives strengthen national resilience and foster social cohesiveness (Lundberg, 2020). Australia and Canada have embraced this strategy, where successful immigrant integration is attributed in great part to multiculturalism. Other academics counter that assimilationist programs, which stress the acceptance of the values and culture of the host nation, are more successful in fosteringsocial stability. Although assimilationist strategies have been used in nations such as France to foster a shared national identity, they have also been condemned for not allowing for cultural diversity (King et al., 2017).

Even while there is a lot of discourse on immigration and national resilience, there are still some major gaps that must be filled. These gaps consist of understudied areas, non-traditional security concerns, and shared methodological constraints. The majority of the research on immigration concentrates on larger countries like the United States, Canada, Germany, and Australia, ignoring the experiences of smaller nations. SomeSoutheast Asian countries, like Laos and Timor-Leste, have less research on the effects of immigration than others. This is, even though, migration dynamics in these smaller nations may vary greatly from those in bigger nations, like Indonesia and Malaysia.

Although immigration in Indonesia has been the subject of some studies, it is usually handled more as a secondary case study than as a main topic ofinvestigation. Being a source and transit country in Southeast Asia, Indonesia's immigration policies necessitate more thorough research. While non- traditional security issues, such as climate change and environmental displacement, receive less emphasis in the literature on immigration and national resilience, traditional threats to security like terrorism and criminality usually take the stage (Black et al., 2011).

In its multifaceted nature, immigration affects fields as diverse as politics, sociology, economics, and environmental studies. Still, a lot of the current research is discipline-specific, and few studies combine ideas from other domains using a cross-disciplinary approach. This is to state that multidisciplinary research could help to better grasp the several aspects of immigration and how it affects national resilience. This can be seen, for instance, in the work of Reed (Reed, 2010) and Khaled  (Kraly & Hovy, 2020) who see immigration issues through a theological lens.

4.4. Innovations and Advancements in Migration Research

Owing to the introduction of new technologies and analytical techniques, migration research methodology has seen significant changes recently. This part addresses some of the most important developments in migration research. Big data's application in migration research has opened fresh chances to examine migration trends broadly (Nurkumalawati et al., 2024). Real-time information on migration flows provided by big data sources including cell phone records, social media data, and satellite images enables researchers to track movements and examine trends with unprecedented accuracy (Soehl et al., 2024; Zagheni et al., 2017). For instance, Syrian refugees in Turkey have been tracked using cell phone data,therefore exposing migratory paths and settlement patterns (Luca et al., 2022; Sterly & Wirkus, 2022). Big data's key benefit, they contend, is itsability to provide large-scale, real-time insights not possible from more conventional data sources. Big data utilization, however, asks questions about representativeness, privacy, and data quality. Data gathered from cell phones might not be typical of all migrants, particularly those without mobile connectivity.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are then quickly being applied to examine migration data, project migration trends, and assess the success of immigration programs  (Molnar, 2019). To find trends and project future migrant flows, AI-powered algorithms may examine enormous datasets like visa applications and border crossing records. For instance, artificial intelligence has been applied to predict the movements of asylum seekers depending on factors such as conflict level and economic conditions back home (Freund et al., 2023; Hoffmann Pham & Luengo-Oroz, 2023; Nair et al., 2020). Although artificial intelligence could significantly raise migration research's accuracy and efficiency, it raises ethical issues as well. Since AI models may reflect prejudices in the data used to train them, their application in migration monitoring can result in bias and discrimination. Moreover, the use of artificial intelligence in decision-making procedures like visa approvals raises questions regardingresponsibility and openness (de Fine Licht & de Fine Licht, 2020; Grimmelikhuijsen, 2023; Loi & Spielkamp, 2021).

Researching migration from a rights-based perspective that stresses migrants' privacy and the ethical use of their data can help academics solve ethical concerns. This encompasses obtaining informed permission, ensuring data security, and being transparent about how the data will be used. Moreover, defined rules on how to apply big data and artificial intelligence in migration research to prevent discrimination and bias as well asmore responsibility in their usage in these fields are needed.

5. Conclusions

5.1.Summarization of Findings

This literature review explores the relationship between immigration paradigms, global mobility, and national resilience, using Indonesia as acomparative case study. It is evidenced that, immigration paradigms are shaped by social, economic, and security concerns, with the push-pulltheory describing financial motivations for migration. However, securitization has led to restricted immigration laws, weakening social cohesiveness and national resilience. Global migration governance emphasizes the need for international institutions and regional cooperation to control migratory flows and build resilience. Resilience frameworks, particularly the integration of immigrants into host nations, are crucial for increasing security and social resilience. Current research on immigration and its link to national resilience needs to focus on underdeveloped areas and sociopolitical processes, as well as combining environmental and financial issues.

5.2.Future Research Directions

To progress the subject of immigration studies, it is critical to pursue new research avenues that fill gaps in the existing literature and address growing difficulties. One of the many relevant avenues for future research is immigrants' sociopolitical integration. While the majority of theliterature focuses on economic integration, there is little research on how immigrants integrate politically and socially in their host countries. Futureresearch should look at the elements that encourage or discourage political participation and civic engagement among immigrants, as well as the role of host communities in promoting social cohesiveness.

Given the complexities of migration, future research should also take a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating findings from economics, political science, sociology, and environmental studies. This method would provide a more comprehensive knowledge of immigration's complex impacts and the elements that contribute to national resilience. Cross-disciplinary research could also aid in the identification of novel solutions tomigration-related difficulties, such as the development of new policies that balance economic needs with social and environmental concerns orsecurity concerns with religious practices.

Several global socioeconomic trends are expected to have an impact on immigration research over the next few decades. The changing demographics of both sending and receiving countries will have a substantial impact on immigration studies. Many nations in the Global North areexperiencing ageing populations and declining birth rates, increasing their reliance on immigration to preserve labour force growth and economic stability. Future research should look at how demographic shifts influence immigration policies, as well as how immigrants might help alleviate labour shortages and sustain ageing populations.

Environmental influences, such as climate change and resource shortages, are predicted to have a significant impact on future migratory trends. As the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events grow, more people will be displaced by environmental reasons, resulting in an increase in the number of climate refugees. Future immigration research should concentrate on gaining a better understanding of the mechanisms that drive climate-induced migration and their consequences for national and international policy frameworks. Furthermore, host countries must investigate how to strengthen their resilience to absorb climate refugees while guaranteeing the long-term viability of their own natural and social systems.

Technological improvements will continue to shape immigration research, both in terms of how migration is studied and controlled. Big data and artificial intelligence (AI) are already transforming migration management by giving new tools for tracking migratory patterns, assessing dangers, and managing refugee identities. Future studies should investigate the ethical implications of these technologies, such as privacy, bias, anddiscrimination, and create standards for their appropriate usage in migration management.

Political movements and changes in the global order are also likely to influence immigration studies. The growth of nationalist and populist groups in many nations has resulted in growing opposition to immigration and the implementation of stricter immigration regulations. Future studies should look at how these political upheavals affect migration flows, immigrants' integration, and national resilience. Furthermore, as globalization continues to alter economic and social dynamics, it is critical to understand how global interconnection influences migration decisions and states' ability to manage migration successfully.

To sum up, immigration is a complicated and varied issue with far-reaching consequences for national resilience. This literature evaluation has identified important trends in immigration perspectives, approaches for studying migration, and areas where additional research is required. Future study that takes a more integrated and cross-disciplinary approach can provide a better understanding of how immigration contributes to or threatens national resilience. Emerging technology, climate-induced migration, and evolving societal dynamics will continue to shape the subject of immigration studies, providing academics and policymakers with both opportunities and difficulties. Addressing these issues necessitates a dedication to ethical research procedures, new solutions, and a thorough understanding of the various elements influencing migration andresilience.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed to this research.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent Statement/Ethics approval: All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. All participants are fully informed and assured of:  the anonymity, the background of the research, use of data, and if there are any risks associated.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted Technologies: This study has not used any generative AI tools or technologies in the preparation of this manuscript.