International Broadcasting and Public Diplomacy: Qatar’s Response to International Criticism of the Kafala System Through Al Jazeera

1. Introduction

The surge in labor demand in Qatar ahead of the 2022 World Cup has made Qatar dependent on the Kafala system as a mechanism for recruiting migrant workers, especially from South Asia. This employment system binds workers to their sponsors (kafil) from the recruitment process to the end of their contracts. The Kafala practice, which is also used in various Gulf countries, has come under international scrutiny because it opens the door to exploitation and human rights violations, particularly in World Cup construction projects.

Reports from Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and other international media outlets have exposed poor working conditions, delayed or withheld wages, restrictions on mobility, and high rates of accidents and deaths among migrant workers (Amnesty International, 2021). This criticism has put Qatar under significant global pressure, especially in the run-up to the World Cup. In response, Qatar announced labor reforms, including the abolition of the no-objection certificate (NOC) and the establishment of a minimum wage, as well as cooperation with international organizations such as the International Labor Organization (ILO), whose annual reports are now published.

Amid these dynamics, Al Jazeera, a mass-media outlet founded in 1996 with the support of the Qatari government, has a strategic position in the country's public diplomacy (cite). Although promoted as a symbol of freedom of expression in the Gulf region, Al Jazeera has been used by Qatar as an instrument to spread influence and shape international narratives (Kusuma et. al, 2022). This role was evident during the 2017 diplomatic crisis, when Al Jazeera was used to frame Qatar as a victim of external aggression, while media outlets such as Al Arabiya constructed the opposite narrative (Kusuma et al, 2022).

As a small country with hyperactive diplomacy in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, Qatar developed a nation branding strategy through Qatar National Vision 2030, cultural promotion, sports, and conflict mediation (cite). The 2022 World Cup became an important moment in this strategy, including through strategic communication, national symbols, and image building as a country committed to sustainable development and human rights. In this context, the issue of kafala reform is not only a domestic labor issue but also part of Qatar's public diplomacy strategy. Mass media acts as a means of global communication to frame responses to international criticism, build legitimacy for reform, and maintain the country's image amidst global scrutiny (Cull, 2009).

This research departs from this context and is closely related to previous works, which are generally divided into three main clusters. First, studies on Qatar's diplomatic strategy within the GCC framework highlight hyperactive diplomacy, nation branding practices, and the implementation of Qatar National Vision 2030 in building an image as a mediator and global center. Second, research on the Kafala system focuses more on the exploitation of migrant workers, criticism from human rights organizations, and the effectiveness of labor reforms ahead of the 2022 World Cup. Third, the study of international media and communication analyzes Al Jazeera's role in the 2017 diplomatic crisis and the contestation of narratives with other media, including the Western media's negative framing of the Kafala issue. However, these three research groups tend to stand separately: the diplomacy study emphasizes state strategy without examining communication practices in depth; the Kafala study focuses on policy dimensions and human rights, while the analysis framing without explicitly linking it to Qatar's public diplomacy framework after the Kafala reform.

This study complements previous research by integrating these three aspects into a single analytical framework. Specifically, this study positions Al Jazeera as an instrument of Qatar's public diplomacy in responding to international criticism of the Kafala system. The contribution of this study lies in its attempt to link state diplomacy strategies, policy reform dynamics, and media communication practices through a unified analysis of how Qatar uses international media to manage its image, legitimacy, and global perceptions.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Qatar's Public Diplomacy Strategy

The first category discusses Qatar's diplomatic strategy within the framework of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Despite its relatively small territory and a population consisting mainly of migrant workers, Qatar does not position itself as a peripheral actor under the domination of larger countries, such as Saudi Arabia or even the United States. Instead, Qatar is known for its active and progressive diplomacy, often referred to as a country with hyperactive diplomatic practices.

These efforts are manifested through an intensive nation-branding strategy to build an image as a global center for education, sports, and culture, as well as a country that upholds peace, mediation, and conflict resolution. This strategy is in line with the national development vision outlined in the Qatar National Vision 2030, which is based on four pillars: human, social, environmental, and economic development. In its implementation, the Qatari government involved various stakeholders from the public and private sectors to represent national aspirations and strengthen the country's image as a flexible and constructive actor on the international stage. The adopted diplomatic approach tends to be pragmatic, emphasizing peaceful conflict resolution and avoiding violence.

For example, Putri et.al. (2021) reveal that using media in nation branding is not a new phenomenon in public diplomacy. For example, the South Korean government implements nation-brand advertising by utilizing various media channels to promote its national image (The Imagine Your Korea tourism campaign is broadcast on Arirang TV, an English-language television station based in South Korea with an international reach. Through cultural, historical, and documentary content packaged in a global language, the South Korean government seeks to shape positive international public opinion and enhance the country's image on the global stage. In addition to television, promotions are also carried out through the official website and YouTube channel managed by the Korea Tourism Organization (KTO). This practice shows that mass media is a strategic instrument in building and disseminating national identity in a planned and persuasive manner.

Qatar is capitalizing on the momentum of hosting the 2022 World Cup, organized by FIFA, to further strengthen its global promotional strategy. The event is not only a means of introducing the national culture to the international community but also a strategic communication vehicle through symbols such as logos and stadium designs that represent the country's positive identity. In addition, Qatar is optimizing digital media and the tournament's official platforms to build a narrative that supports the national image, while creating a positive experience for visitors, for example, by providing public transportation access for Hayya Card holders.

Another example of public diplomacy by taking advantage of an event was conducted by Saudi Arabia through its Umrah and Hajj programs. This study explores its role as the guardian of Islam, allowing the kingdom to project soft power, convey a welcoming image, and build goodwill with the millions of Muslims who visit annually. The influx also allows Saudi authorities to highlight development projects (new infrastructure under Arab Saudi’s Vision 2030) and demonstrate its capacity to host large-scale events, reinforcing its diplomatic standing (Saripudin & Juned, 2024).

2.2 Kafala System

The second category discusses the Kafala system, criticism of its practices, and its reform in Qatar. The hosting of the first World Cup in an Arab country cannot be separated from the negative dynamics involving migrant workers in Qatar. Since being selected to host the 2022 World Cup, Qatar has received much criticism for the Kafala system, a system that regulates migrant workers from the recruitment process to their employment in Qatar. For example, when migrant workers are recruited by employers (sponsors), they are charged fees ranging from USD 1,000 to 5,000 (equivalent to IDR 16,690,000 to 83,450,000, at an exchange rate of IDR 16,690 per USD in May 2025) to work in Qatar, most of whom are low-skilled migrant workers (Damir-Geilsdorf, 2016). Meanwhile, migrant workers' safety on construction sites is not guaranteed, and some construction workers are not even provided with personal protective equipment, such as helmets. The living conditions of migrant workers also tend to be far from residential areas and exposed to waste, with uncovered septic tanks causing unpleasant odors. According to a report by Amnesty International (2021), thousands of migrant workers have died suddenly, with most deaths attributed to natural causes or heart attacks, without any detailed investigation by the Qatari authorities into the possible link between working conditions and worker safety. The families of migrant workers who have died often do not receive compensation because the cause of death is inconsistent with the facts on the ground.

Qatar responded to criticism by allowing site inspections in collaboration with various non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Workers Welfare International, which are expected to increase trust and a positive image among the international community towards Qatar and the 2022 World Cup (Al Thani, 2022). Through this prestigious football tournament, Qatar is also promoting sustainable development, in line with the United Nations (UN) commitment, by encouraging positive change through a positive image of a credible country that is aware of human rights (Al Thani, 2022).

2.3 International Mass Media

The third category discusses the use of mass media, in this case, Al Jazeera, as a tool of Qatari diplomacy. Advances in science and technology are factors driving the use of mass media as a tool of public diplomacy. Mass media, including news and social media, makes individual users non-state actors who play a role in international relations in the form of citizen journalism by capturing and uploading events that have the potential to attract global attention (Subagyo, 2017). This is in contrast to the situation before the rise of digital media, when global phenomena were only disseminated through print media, which was slow and image-building (Subagyo, 2017).

Al Jazeera, as an online news media, was used by Qatar to 'respond' to statements made by other Arab Gulf countries during the 2017 diplomatic crisis. Both sides published articles in their respective countries' news media. In this case, Al Jazeera portrayed Qatar as the victim of external aggression led by Saudi Arabia and called Saudi Arabia counter-revolutionary for its blockade of Qatar. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia, through Al Arabiya, portrayed Qatar as a party with close ties to terrorism and the blockade as a response to Qatar's provocations, considering this issue a crisis aimed at political or military confrontation. In its reporting, Al Arabiya used the word terrorism to create a narrative that Qatar had close ties to terrorist groups, at least 61.4% of the time, in its news broadcasts. On the other hand, Qatar also uses the word terrorism to refer to the behavior of Saudi Arabia and several other Gulf Arab countries that are blockading Qatar, calling it an anti-revolutionary movement following the Arab Spring and a violation of journalistic freedom (Ajaoud and Elmasry, 2020). In addition, research by Juned et. al (2013) argues that these three mechanisms; cheap communication, real‑time information flow, and reduced operational costs generated “cascades of information” that turned online solidarity into offline street power. Social media strengthened Egyptian politics by providing the tools for mass mobilisation, shared political imagination, and a platform that could out‑pace state censorship, thereby reshaping the public sphere during the 2011 revolution in Egypt (Juned, et. al., 2013).

The Kafala system has been widely reported in both local and international media, such as the BBC, The Guardian, and CNN. Through van Dijk's framework, we can see how the media constructs narratives on an issue, in this case, the Kafala system in Western media. This framework helps identify the driving factors in terms of culture, ideology, and power relations that influence the use of words in media reporting. For example, The Guardian describes the Kafala system in a rather negative light, saying that it is a form of modern slavery. From a public diplomacy perspective, the Qatari government built its international image regarding the 2017 diplomatic crisis using communication channels, with Al Jazeera as the media outlet that regularly published numerous news articles and coverage related to the issue to restore the image of the country that Qatar had previously built since the 1990s. Qatar also offers scholarships to students and holds international forums to enhance the country's image in the field of science (Kusuma et al., 2022).

3. Methods

This study uses a descriptive qualitative method to gain an in-depth understanding of Qatar's efforts to mobilize Al Jazeera as an instrument of public diplomacy, emphasizing the analysis of naturalistic social phenomena. Data were collected through documentation studies and interviews. The documents used included Al Jazeera news articles, scientific journals, books, annual reports, official Qatari government documents, and reports from non-governmental organizations related to the reform of the Kafala system. Primary data were obtained through interviews with parties directly involved in Al Jazeera's news production, such as journalists, to determine the factors that influence the news reporting process. Secondary data were sourced from various supporting documents relevant to the issue of migrant workers and Kafala reform. Data analysis techniques used the Pan and Kosicki (1993) framing model, which covers four structural dimensions of news texts— syntax, script, thematic, and rhetorical—to identify narrative patterns and communication strategies used in framing Kafala reform to the international public. Through this approach, the study aims to reveal how Qatar builds and manages its image through Al Jazeera's news coverage.

4. Findings and Discussion

The reform of the Kafala system in Qatar cannot be separated from increasing international pressure ahead of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Since Qatar won the right to host the event in 2010, global attention to the conditions of migrant workers has increased significantly. The Kafala system, which has long been the main mechanism for regulating labor relations in Gulf countries, creates an unequal power relationship between employers and migrant workers. In practice, this system gives sponsors considerable control over the legal status, work mobility, and even the overseas travel permits of migrant workers. Criticism of this system has intensified as major infrastructure projects have begun, attracting the attention of the international media and human rights organizations.

Western media has played an important role in shaping global perceptions of this issue. Reports by BBC News, The Guardian, and Reuters have highlighted allegations of migrant worker exploitation, including high recruitment fees, passport retention, dangerous working conditions, and high mortality rates among construction workers (Goodwin, 2021; Pattisson, 2020). The narrative that has developed in these reports tends to frame Qatar as a country that has failed to protect the rights of migrant workers, even though the Qatari government has expressed its commitment to gradual reforms.

This reputational pressure is significant given that Qatar is a small country with a limited population and a workforce consisting mainly of migrant workers. National branding efforts through Qatar National Vision 2030 aim to project the image of a modern and progressive country with four main pillars of development: human, social, economic, and environmental. However, criticism of the Kafala System has the potential to undermine these efforts (Elyas & Kurdi, 2022).

In response to global pressure, the Qatari government has implemented several labor reforms that the International Labor Organization (ILO) has deemed significant. In its 2020–2022 annual report, the ILO noted the elimination of the no-objection certificate (NOC) requirement, implementation of a non-discriminatory minimum wage, strengthening of the wage protection system (WPS), establishment of a dispute resolution committee, and increased labor inspections (International Labor Organization (ILO), 2021, 2022). In addition, Qatar introduced WBGT index-based occupational safety regulations to protect workers from the risk of heat stress (ILO, 2021). ILO data show an increase in labor mobility and expanded access to complaint mechanisms and social protection. However, evaluations by human rights organizations indicate that the implementation of reforms has not been fully effective. Amnesty International (2021) and Human Rights Watch (2022) assessed that retaliatory practices by employers still occur. Administrative barriers, power imbalances, late payment of wages, and threats of residency permit revocation remain structural problems. Thus, there is a gap between normative reforms and practices in the field.

The difference in evaluation between the ILO and human rights organizations reflects the contestation of the global narrative on Kafala reform. On the one hand, the reform is seen as progressive progress in the regional context of the Gulf (ILO, 2022). On the other hand, the reforms are considered insufficient to bring about substantial structural transformation (Amnesty International, 2021; Human Rights Watch, 2022). This contestation is not only related to the substance of the policy but also to how the reforms are communicated and perceived internationally. In the context of public diplomacy, strategic communication is an important instrument for managing global perceptions. Qatar responds to pressure not only through domestic policies but also through international communication strategies. Al Jazeera plays a significant role in this regard. As an international media network founded in 1996 with state support, Al Jazeera has developed into one of Qatar's instruments of soft power (Elyas & Kurdi, 2022). Through its global reach, Al Jazeera plays a role in conveying narratives about Qatar's commitment to labor reform. Al Jazeera's coverage of Qatar's cooperation with the ILO, the implementation of minimum wages, and the strengthening of work safety regulations often emphasizes the progressive and transformational aspects of these reforms. The narrative underscores that reform is a gradual process that requires time, institutional coordination, and structural adaptation (Saraswathi, 2022). Thus, this media outlet serves as a medium for framing Qatar's response to international criticism as a form of commitment and continuous improvement.

The momentum of the 2022 World Cup further reinforces the urgency of managing this image. As the first Gulf country to host the World Cup, Qatar is using this event to promote its culture, modern infrastructure, and commitment to sustainability. However, the spotlight on migrant worker issues has made kafala reform an integral part of the global narrative on Qatar (Elyas & Kurdi, 2022). Overall, the reform of the kafala system can be understood in two dimensions: as a domestic labor policy and as a public diplomacy strategy. The contestation of narratives between international media, human rights organizations, the ILO, and Al Jazeera shows that this issue is not only about policy implementation but also a battle of meanings in the global arena. Thus, kafala reform is an example of how domestic policy, international pressure, and global communication strategies intertwine in shaping a country's legitimacy and image at the international level.

The Inside Story program – The Plight of Qatar's Migrant Workers, aired on Al Jazeera's YouTube channel, discussed the conditions of migrant workers in Qatar ahead of the 2022 World Cup. The program opened with an introduction to Al Jazeera as a Qatar-based media outlet and a mention of Qatar as one of the richest countries in the world. The program then highlighted a Human Rights Watch report stating that approximately 1.2 million migrant workers are at risk of human rights violations. The main focus was on construction workers involved in the construction of World Cup stadiums and infrastructure. Field coverage showed the crowded living conditions of workers, with six to sixteen people in one room. Several workers claimed that they had not been paid for two months, and the Qatari government was said to have acknowledged that most worker complaints related to unpaid wages or wages below the minimum standard. Living facilities were described as inadequate, such as squalid kitchens with limited stoves and no dining rooms or refrigerators. One worker said he received a wage of approximately QAR 691 per month to support seven children in his home country. These visuals and testimonies reinforced the picture of the economic and social vulnerability of low-wage migrant workers. The program also quoted a statement from the International Labor Organization (ILO), which assessed that the issue of migrant workers is not only a Qatari issue but also a regional phenomenon in Gulf countries. Data showed that approximately 94 percent of Qatar's population consists of migrant workers, the highest figure in the region, while countries such as Saudi Arabia also have a significant proportion. Thus, this issue is placed in the structural context of Gulf countries' dependence on foreign labor. In the studio discussion, Al Jazeera presented Zahra Babar from Georgetown University and Tim Noonan from the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). Zahra Babar explained that the issue of migrant workers has been the subject of research for two decades. She emphasized that the migration experience is not always uniform; some workers reap economic benefits, even though structural vulnerabilities remain high. Babar also highlighted the role of countries of origin and recruitment agencies in creating labor market mechanisms that are prone to exploitation. According to her, reforming the Kafala system cannot be done instantly and requires gradual improvements, such as increased inspections and migration governance. Tim Noonan asserted that the state has the primary responsibility for ensuring worker protection, more so than FIFA or contractors. He cited findings on high worker mortality rates, including hundreds of cases of Nepalese workers in less than a year, as well as inconsistencies in official Qatari government data. Proposed solutions include the effective abolition of the Kafala system, freedom of association, and transparent law enforcement.

Within the framework of Nicholas J. Al Jazeera does not shy away from criticizing Qatar but presents it through visual reports, data from international organizations, and independent sources. This approach allows a global audience to form their own judgments while maintaining Al Jazeera’s position as a professional international media outlet. Thus, the program’s contribution to Qatar’s public diplomacy is not in the form of direct advocacy but rather through credible and open journalistic practices that welcome criticism. Thus, the program's contribution to Qatar's public diplomacy is not in the form of direct advocacy, but rather through credible and open journalistic practices that welcome criticism.

5. Conclusion

Overall, Qatar's public diplomacy strategy through Al Jazeera is carried out not through direct and defensive state communication, but through international broadcasting practices that rely on journalistic credibility, balanced sources, and contextual framing of issues. In Inside Story broadcasts and news articles related to the reform of the Kafala system, Al Jazeera consistently presents the reality of migrant workers, from working conditions and wage delays to high mortality rates, referring to reports from international organizations such as Human Rights Watch and the International Labor Organization, and presenting the voices of migrant workers and independent experts. This pattern is in line with Nicholas J. Cull's (2009) international broadcasting framework, which emphasizes the importance of credibility and overheard messages, where messages are not delivered as explicit defenses of the state, but are allowed to be shaped through facts, testimonies, and legitimate non-state authorities. At the same time, Al Jazeera also systematically included official statements from the Qatari government regarding Kafala reforms, increased labor inspections, and cooperation with the ILO, so that the criticism does not stand as a delegitimization of the state, but rather as a challenge to implementation in the ongoing process of structural reform.

The connection between the coverage of the Kafala reform and Qatar's criticism of Western media ahead of the 2022 World Cup shows how Al Jazeera functions as a space for articulating counter-narratives in the global discourse contest. By raising the Qatari government's claims regarding the distortion of data on migrant worker deaths, double standards, and elements of racism and Islamophobia in some Western news reports, Al Jazeera not only conveys the country's position but also encourages international audiences to reassess the legitimacy of circulating criticism. From Marshall McLuhan's perspective, this condition shows that Al Jazeera operates as cool media situationally because the meaning of the news is not presented in a final and one-way manner, but rather requires the active participation of the audience to negotiate various competing narratives. When linked back to Cull's concept of public diplomacy, Al Jazeera's advocacy and international broadcasting functions appear to work simultaneously: maintaining the credibility of global media while providing space for the state to build legitimacy and maintain its international image. Thus, Al Jazeera's contribution to Qatar's public diplomacy does not lie in the direct promotion of the reform of the Kafala system as a normative achievement, but rather in its ability to frame issues in a complex, layered, and open-to-criticism manner, so that Qatar's public diplomacy strategy is carried out through journalistic practices that appear independent but remain strategic.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, writing original draft preparation, and writing review and editing were conducted by the authors.

Funding: This study received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent Statement/Ethics approval: Not applicable.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted Technologies: This study has not used any generative AI tools or technologies in the preparation of this manuscript.