Terrorism and International Relations: The Way Forward

1. Introduction

The threat of terrorism remains a significant and persistent danger to global security, influencing the political, social, and economic structures of the global community. The modern era has experienced remarkable growth in the scope and intensity of this emerging phenomenon, fostering unparalleled international responses. Although, Terrorism does not have a specific definition,  it may be defined in context as the utilization of violence and coercion to attain political, religious, or ideological objectives, frequently crossing national boundaries and posing significant challenges to fundamental tenets of international relations. Government and international organizations must stabilize anti-terrorism efforts with the defense of human rights, democratic values, and the integrity of the worldwide security structure (Vоlоshchuk et al 2021).

The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States constitutes a watershed moment in modern terrorism, precipitating a seismic shift in international anti-terrorism approaches. Coordinated by al-Qaeda, the assaults targeted not only the U.S. but also disrupting global systems and triggering military interference.  Al-Qaeda’s inspirations were based on religious extremism, anti-Western ideologies, and contradicting U.S. policies in the Middle East, with the aim of attracting the U.S. into extended clashes in regions such as Afghanistan and Iraq (Schmid and Alex, 2022).   Even though over two decades have passed, the result of these attacks continues to impact anti-terrorism tactics and mold international security policies (Abu-bakare, 2020; Olaniyi 2024).

Across 9/11, other examples demonstrate the complications of Terrorism beyond diverse contexts, such as the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. Based on Islam radicalism, Boko Haram seeks to bring down the secular Nigerian Government and create an Islamic State guarded by Sharia.  It has been posited that the group’s strategies, which include abductions, bombings, and assassinations, not only disrupt North-Eastern Nigeria but also increase global concerns; prompting replies from surrounding countries and global organizations (Okunade and Ogunnubi, 2020).  Boko Haram’s actions highlight the complications in solving terrorism in religions with feeble governance, important economic inequalities, and restricted global aid (Ojo 2020; Ogungbemi 2024).

The 2008 Mumbai attacks provide a further illustration of the intricacies of contemporary terrorism. The international networks engaged together with their ideological inspirations illustrate the significance of global collaboration in fighting terrorism.  India’s reply, comprising its dependence on knowledge-sharing and partnership with international powers, emphasizes the important duty of global organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the United Nations in anti-terrorism efforts (Susan et al.2024).  The Mumbai attacks also show the weakness of a civilized environment, where highly populated areas create problems for stopping well-organized terrorist attacks (Heyer & Garth 2023; Akintola et al 2024).

Correspondingly, the 2015 Paris assault demonstrates the international nature of terrorism. Created by ISIS, these assaults aimed at important locations in significant European cities, exposing differences in national security frameworks and causing strain on global anti-terrorism corporations. Terrorists' manipulations of migrant crises and their use of coded communications increase worries about the fragile balance between state surveillance, privacy rights, and civil freedom (Kaunert et al.2020).   The Paris Assault further shows the significance of stronger military, legal, and tactful replies to developing threats as European nations battled to halt familiar assaults in the future (Fox 2021).

Beyond traditional Terrorism, cyberterrorism presents a new dimension of complexity in the international struggle against extremism. The technology era has made terrorist organizations to work unidentified, broadening their reach through online hiring and implementing cyberattacks on crucial infrastructure.  These developments challenge traditional anti-terrorism methods; cyber terrorism presents a multifaceted threat, comprising both national security and the stability of global financial systems and critical communication infrastructure (Broeders et al 2021).  The rapidly evolving nature of terrorist activities in cyberspace necessitates a re-evaluation of international laws and cooperative frameworks to address emerging challenges effectively (Efrony2023; Arigbabu et al 2024).

Moreover, the intersection of Terrorism and human rights poses substantial challenges to international relations. Governments globally encounter the challenge of executing successful anti-terrorism actions while sustaining civil freedom.  A lot of nations have relied on disputable practices, which include mass surveillance, indefinite detentions, and even the use of cruelty, frequently leading to violations of global human rights standards (Shahnawaz &Abad 2021).  Although some argue that these measures are necessary for global security, concerns persist that they may inadvertently fuel the grievances exploited by terrorist groups, thereby perpetuating cycles of extremism. This ongoing argument between ranking security and safeguarding human rights remains one of the most difficult obstacles for states and global bodies included in anti-terrorism (Gamurari 2020; Samuel Okon etal 2024).

Global collaboration is important for handling the international threat of Terrorism. Organizations like the United Nations and NATO play an important role in coordinating tactics, enabling knowledge-sharing, and advocating global lawful structures. Nevertheless, these efforts are frequently obstructed by contradictory national interests, different levels of political dedication, and disproportionate resource allocation among member states.  It has been  proposed that while defense forces' interference and knowledge-sharing are crucial, addressing the source of terrorism, which includes political grievances, economic imbalance, and social unfairness, remains important for long-term stability (Mwangi 1975).  Consequently, international organizations must adopt a multifaceted approach that transcends military interventions and instead addresses the root causes of conflicts through comprehensive solutions (Lake et al 2021; Samuel – Okon 2024).

The ever-evolving nature of Terrorism poses significant challenges to international counter-extremism efforts, particularly with the emergence of lone-wolf attacks and digital terrorism threats. Investigating major historical scenarios such as the September 11 attacks, the Boko Haram rebellion, and the Paris attacks, all point to the significance of international collaboration, strong anti-terrorism laws, and cautious stability between human rights and security actions. Analyzing the disparate motivations driving terrorist actions and the range of responses to these actions can provide invaluable insights, ultimately informing the development of effective international security tactics (Boustras and Waring 2020).  As nations collaborate together to fight against terrorism, these case studies offer critical insights that will significantly inform and enhance future anti-terrorism initiatives, both domestically and globally (Ejova 2023).

2. Factors of Terrorism

Terrorism is driven by a multifaceted mix of socio-political, ideological, and economic motivations, characterized by varying contextual factors yet sharing over-reaching commonalities. Ideological extremism, frequently rooted in radical religious, political, and nationalist convictions, serves as a key catalyst for terrorism.  It has been argued that groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS have skewed religious messages to vindicate violence, especially in response to threats to their values (Venkatesh et al 2018).  The September 11 attacks, for example, were motivated by a toxic mix of anti-Western sentiment and resentment towards U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, with extremist groups exploiting religious narratives to recruit martyrs. Correspondingly, the Boko Haram rebellion in Nigeria, based on Islamist extremism, is targeted at commanding Sharia law. Still, it is also motivated by the socio-political disenfranchisement and economic disregard of Northeastern Nigeria (Samuel Okon 2024).

The advent of globalization, coupled with the proliferation of the internet and social media, has significantly expanded the reach and influence of terrorist organizations worldwide. Groups such as ISIS have leveraged these digital platforms to disseminate propaganda and recruit disillusioned individuals globally, transcending geographical boundaries. Social media platforms, including YouTube and Twitter, facilitate the dissemination of extremist ideologies, posing significant challenges to anti-terrorism initiatives due to their decentralized and diffused structures.  For example, ISIS's use of social platforms illustrates how terrorist organizations adjust to the technology era, enlisting oppressed individuals exasperated with global politics (Abdulmajid 2021).

Political unrest also facilitates the rise of terrorism. It has been argued that the power authority void in Syria and Iraq permitted groups like ISIS to thrive by manipulating sectarian disputes and debilitating State power (Munhir 2023).  The proliferation of Boko Haram can be attributed to the Nigerian government’s inability to address fundamental needs in the Northeastern region, compounded by economic disregard. This neglect cultivates discontent, which extremist groups capitalize on to recruit people against the state.

Economic instability, characterized by poverty and inequality, constitutes a significant factor in the proliferation of terrorism. In regions plagued by financial uncertainty, people are lured into extremist groups by economic enticement or the promise of social affiliation.  Boko Haram manipulates economic inequalities in northern Nigeria, where high joblessness and inadequate development make enlistment easier. While economic factors do not singularly trigger terrorism, they exacerbate existing grievances, creating a fertile ground for radicalization (Tayimlong 200).  Correspondingly, ISIS has effectively enlisted foreign fighters by providing not only ideological alignment but also economic sustenance in conflict-hidden regions (Tyler et al 2020; Okon et al 2024).

Terrorism is a multifaceted phenomenon driven by an interplay of ideological, social-political, and economic factors. Consequently, effective anti-terrorism strategies must embrace a holistic approach, dealing with the underlying grievances that fuel extremist ideologies (Treistman, 2021).

3.     Impact of Terrorism on International Relations

Terrorist attacks have significant and wide-ranging effects on international relations, reshaping global diplomatic, military, and economic policies. These attacks often prompt immediate responses that alter security frameworks and diplomatic priorities. The September 11, 2001, attacks, for instance, led to the U.S. War on Terror and military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq.  These actions strengthened alliances, particularly within NATO, but also caused tensions with nations such as France and Russia, which opposed the interventions (Connah 2020).  This shift placed terrorism at the center of international discussions, pushing aside other global issues (Kruglanski et al,2020; Asonze et al 2024).

Other major attacks, such as the 2008 Mumbai and 2015 Paris attacks, further demonstrate terrorism's impact on international relations. The Mumbai attacks heightened tensions between India and Pakistan, with India accusing Pakistan-based groups of responsibility, leading to increased military readiness. Similarly, the Paris attacks prompted France to intensify airstrikes on ISIS in Syria.  These incidents highlight the need for international cooperation in counterterrorism, prompting European nations to enhance border controls and intelligence-sharing (Cross 2019). 

Terrorism has also driven changes in global security frameworks, particularly after 9/11.   It has been contended that the focus on counterterrorism led to the creation of institutions like the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and expanded NATO’s role (Levitt et al 2024).  However, these military actions often result in civilian casualties and fuel radicalization, especially in the Middle East and South Asia. This raises concerns about the limitations of a purely military approach, with calls for addressing socio-economic factors that contribute to radicalization (Ramasamy2021).

Diplomatic relations are deeply affected by terrorism. The U.S. interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq caused long-term instability in the Middle East, straining relations with Iran and Syria, while strengthening alliances with countries like Saudi Arabia (Kaye et al 2024).   International platforms such as the United Nations have facilitated counterterrorism dialogue, though debates persist over whether military actions or political and economic reforms are the most effective strategies (Londras et al 2022: Omoniyi et al 2024).

Terrorism also shapes global alliances and norms. The creation of bodies such as the UN’s Counter-Terrorism Committee and the Global Counterterrorism Forum reflects international responses to terrorism. While these alliances have bolstered efforts, they remain fragile due to disagreements over strategies. Nonetheless, terrorism continues to influence international relations, creating both opportunities for cooperation and challenges in managing conflicting national interests (Hill et al 2023).

Recently, the United Nations Agency for International Development (USAID) was accused of aiding and abetting terrorists in Nigeria with the funds meant for development in line with the agency’s mandate.  The agency since inception by the government of John F. Kennedy has the mandate to improve the quality of living through its contribution to health, education and the economy with particular focus on HIV/AIDS patients and agriculture.  US Congress man, Scot Perry alleged that USAID was funding terrorist groups such as Boko haram, ISIS and Al-Qaeda with the funds generated from taxes paid by Americans.  Although, these allegations have remained unsubstantiated the Trump led government has withdrawn the aids given to developing countries.  In this regard, it will be apposite to conduct a thorough investigation into the veracity of this allegation before concluding on the guilt of the agency.

4.     Counterterrorism Efforts in International Relations

Counterterrorism efforts in international relations are shaped by the involvement of international organisations, military alliances, and legal frameworks, all of which influence global strategies. The United Nations (UN) has played a significant role in fostering cooperation among member states through initiatives like the 2006 Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.  This framework encourages international dialogue and collaboration. However, the UN’s effectiveness is limited by the divergent political agendas of member states, leading to inconsistent enforcement of agreements (Ipe et al.2010).  Despite fostering cooperation, the lack of binding enforcement mechanisms weakens the overall impact of UN efforts (Hoffman et al 2022; oladoyinbo et al 2024).

NATO, in contrast, has focused on a militarized approach, otherwise called deradicalisation, as evidenced by its involvement in Afghanistan after 9/11.  NATO has been instrumental in intelligence-sharing and coordinating military efforts to dismantle terrorist networks. However, criticisms have emerged, particularly concerning the overemphasis on military interventions rather than addressing the underlying causes of terrorism (Watling & Macfarland 2021)  The U.S.-led campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq temporarily disrupted terrorist activities, but they also destabilized regions, creating power vacuums later exploited by groups such as ISIS (Cordesman & Toukan 2019). 

Intelligence-sharing remains a critical component of counterterrorism. Alliances like the Five Eyes—a cooperative intelligence-sharing group between the U.S., U.K., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand—have been vital in preempting attacks and strengthening global security efforts. These alliances have enhanced cross-border tracking of terrorist networks, although differences in national security priorities and legal frameworks, such as data privacy laws, present ongoing challenges (Cater 2023; Olaniyi et al 2024).

Legal frameworks and diplomacy are also essential in counterterrorism. Treaties like the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism provide legal structures to combat the financing of extremist activities. Although these frameworks establish global standards, enforcement remains inconsistent, especially in regions with weak legal institutions.  Diplomatic efforts aimed at promoting political stability and economic development are crucial in addressing terrorism’s root causes, although they often struggle to balance immediate security needs with long-term developmental goals (Verma 2019).

A purely military approach has proven inadequate in combating terrorism, as it fails to address the socio-political and economic factors that contribute to radicalization. Hence,  a broader strategy combining diplomatic, legal, and developmental efforts is necessary to tackle the complexities of terrorism effectively (Prantl and Goh 2022).  This comprehensive approach should integrate military responses with intelligence-sharing, legal reforms, and political initiatives to counter the conditions that sustain terrorism ( Walsh 2020; Olaniyi et al 2024).

5.     Challenges to Global Counterterrorism Efforts

Global counterterrorism efforts continue to face numerous challenges that hinder their overall effectiveness. One significant obstacle is balancing national security with the protection of fundamental human rights.  In the aftermath of 9/11, governments implemented stringent security measures, including surveillance programs and indefinite detentions, justified by the need to prevent future attacks. However, practices such as those at Guantanamo Bay have drawn criticism from human rights organizations, which argue that they violate international norms and contribute to further radicalization. Mass surveillance programs, as exposed by Edward Snowden, have also sparked debates over privacy rights.( Adelaiye 2024).  Critics argue that these measures erode public trust and infringe on civil liberties, especially in marginalized communities, highlighting the ongoing difficulty of balancing security with civil rights protections (Aitkinson et al 2020).

The rise of cyberterrorism presents a newer challenge for global counterterrorism strategies. Terrorist organizations, particularly groups like ISIS, increasingly utilize cyberspace to recruit, radicalize, and coordinate attacks.   It has also been posited that the anonymity of the internet allows these groups to operate with impunity, often surpassing the legal and enforcement capacities of individual nations (Belhadj Ali 2021).  Current international legal frameworks, such as the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, are inadequate for addressing the complexities of cyberterrorism. The transnational nature of these crimes further complicates jurisdictional enforcement, emphasizing the need for updated international laws that address prosecuting cyberterrorists operating across multiple borders (Mahboob et al 2023).

Resource disparities between nations also exacerbate the global counterterrorism challenge. Many less-resourced countries, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, lack the financial, technological, and human resources necessary to develop sophisticated counterterrorism strategies. Oriola argues that Nigeria’s struggle against Boko Haram illustrates this point, as the government’s inability to properly equip its military has allowed the group to persist. (Oriola 2021).  These countries often depend on external support from wealthier nations, which raises concerns about sovereignty and dependency. Furthermore, resource disparities lead to unequal prioritization of counterterrorism, with wealthier nations focusing on their own security concerns, sometimes at the expense of broader global cooperation (McGauvran et al 2024).

Political differences further complicate global counterterrorism efforts.  While some nations, like the United States and the United Kingdom, take active roles in military and intelligence-sharing initiatives, others, particularly those less affected by terrorism, may show lower levels of engagement. This divergence often creates gaps in international strategies, undermining the overall effectiveness of global counterterrorism efforts (Cline 2022). Greater international cooperation remains critical, but achieving consensus on coordinated responses is often hindered by competing national interests and varying levels of political commitment (Chaturvedi et al2024)

In addressing these challenges, a more integrated approach is required.  It is contended that efforts to balance security with human rights, address cyberterrorism, and bridge resource and political gaps must be prioritized to effectively combat terrorism on an international level (Susan et al 2024).

6.      The Way Forward

Counterterrorism efforts, while complex, have achieved notable successes that provide valuable insights for future strategies. One frequently cited example is Sri Lanka’s defeat of the Tamil Tigers (LTTE) in 2009, ending a 26-year civil war. Wuthnow and Fravel argue that this success was driven by a combination of military strategies, including consolidating military power and centralizing intelligence efforts.( Wuthnow and Fravel 2022).  The Sri Lankan government's establishment of "no-fire zones" for civilians and the role of international support in logistics and intelligence were also critical. However, the campaign has been criticized for human rights violations, illustrating the need to balance security measures with humanitarian considerations (O’Leary 2021; Ogungbemi et al 2024).

Colombia’s efforts against the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) present another example of a successful counterterrorism approach. The Colombian government, with U.S. support under Plan Colombia, combined military action with socio-political reforms. The 2016 peace agreement was achieved not only through military operations but also by addressing poverty, inequality, and political exclusion—key drivers of terrorism (Meger & Sachseder 2020).  This underscores that military solutions alone are insufficient for lasting peace (Walter et al 2020).

New and evolving threats, such as cyberterrorism and lone-wolf attacks, challenge traditional counterterrorism approaches. Terrorist organizations increasingly leverage digital platforms to recruit, plan, and execute attacks.   The anonymity of cyberspace has allowed groups like ISIS to exploit this domain, outpacing current legal frameworks (Schneider et al 2020).   Stronger international laws and enhanced intelligence-sharing are needed to counter this growing threat, although concerns over data privacy and national security complicate such cooperation (Bode and H. Huelss 2024).

Lone-wolf attacks, often carried out by individuals radicalised online, present additional challenges. Traditional counterterrorism strategies, which focus on organised groups, are often ill-equipped to address the decentralised nature of these attacks. Furthermore, expanded counter-radicalization efforts, focusing on psychological and social factors, are essential (Scrivens 2020).  In the same vein, community engagement, counter-narratives to extremist ideologies, and mental health support are necessary to mitigate the rise of lone-wolf terrorism (Hutson 2021).

Scholars agree that a more holistic counterterrorism approach is needed. Beyond military interventions, it is vital to address socio-economic and political grievances that fuel terrorism. Reducing poverty, combating political marginalisation, and addressing ideological grievances can diminish the conditions that lead to radicalization (Ajil 2020).  Enhanced international cooperation, particularly in intelligence-sharing and cybersecurity, will also be crucial for countering threats like cyberterrorism. As terrorist threats evolve, counterterrorism strategies must adapt, focusing on both immediate security and long-term stability (Rahman et al 2023; Joseph 2024).

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

This study highlighted the complex nature of terrorism, shaped by socio-political, ideological, and economic factors. While socio-political variables like trust in government, religious values, and political ideology were not significant predictors of religiously motivated terrorism, key patterns, particularly in the relationship between political ideology and governance have been revealed. These findings suggest that, although individual factors may not always predict terrorism, they influence its manifestation in different contexts.

The analysis of the September 11 attacks demonstrated a strong global response, with increased international collaborations and counterterrorism policies post-9/11. However, the U.S.'s internal peace stability showed limited change, emphasizing the greater global impact of these attacks. The growth of coalitions, led by organizations like NATO and the UN, underscores the importance of international cooperation in addressing terrorism.

The analysis confirmed that UN and NATO interventions help reduce terrorist incidents but are more effective when combined with strong governance and economic stability. The interaction between unemployment and governance further stressed the need for addressing socio-economic conditions in weak governance systems to effectively counter terrorism. Overall, governance and economic stability were found to be more impactful than military or legal interventions alone. Based on the findings, the study offers the following recommendations for improving global counterterrorism efforts:

1.     International organizations should prioritize governance reforms in countries vulnerable to terrorism, as improved governance has a significant impact on reducing terrorist incidents.

2.     Economic development initiatives must be integrated with counterterrorism strategies, as stronger economic stability is shown to have the most substantial effect on reducing terrorism.

3.     International coalitions should expand beyond military and legal interventions, incorporating broader socio-economic strategies to address the root causes of terrorism.

4.     Intelligence-sharing and international collaboration must be strengthened to ensure that counterterrorism policies are consistently implemented across borders, facilitating a more coordinated and effective global response to terrorism.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed to this research.

Funding: Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed Consent Statement/Ethics Approval: Not applicable.